Friday, December 31, 2010

THE DOOR IS OPEN

Friends, we have started the journey again
Walking firmly without fear but gain
knocking years with zeal and curiosity
Honor with dignity and respect

Crossed many rivers with hope
Cutting mad and whirlwind without stop
Developing faith and determination to cope
crimbing moutains, swimming oceans without help


Today its over
starting a new chapter without cloud cover
The sky is clear.
Its not likely to rain soon or stear

I know there might be showers of yesterday
showers that might worry you day after day
Do not let them form dew over your head
Get an umbrella now and take a lead

When you start off tomorrow
crossed this rubcon without sorrow
Do not look back
And say to yourself "I will not go back"

My father will listen to you
He wants to start with you something new
It comes once in twelve months
Its real and not a myth

Find me there tomorrow
Sitwe Benson

Monday, December 27, 2010

Discuss the religious-cum-metaphysical Experience in any two of Christopher Okigbo’s poems in Heavensgate.

Discuss the religious-cum-metaphysical Experience in any two of Christopher Okigbo’s poems in Heavensgate.




African poetry is basically a search for indigenous African philosophies, art, cultural identity, theological and religious beliefs, roots of nature, and thoughts distinct from the world as a whole. These African writers focuses on real and crucial issues arising from the banks of Africa like the freedom struggle, corruption, oppression of women by men, leadership, famine, diseases, migrations and many more. They also focus and emphasize on the beauty of an African woman and the importance of an African religious belief. Initially, African poetry was meant to be performed orally and not to be read. Because of this, oral literature has always been limited to time, it is live and involves audience participation and therefore, publicly owned. Christopher Okigbo was an African poet who was basically brought up by an African family which practiced the African tradition. He was born in 1932 in Ojoto Village in the eastern part of Nigeria. He came from a family with strong religious and cultural beliefs. His family was Roman Catholic Church (Christians) by denomination. His father was a leader at a catholic school but his grandfather had been saving as a shrine priest of the river goddess known as Idoto. The experience of these two family members raised a number conundrums regarding his identity and cultural heritage. Okigbo’s religious and spiritual experience is vivid through out his poems in Heavensgate. This paper attempts to discuss the religious-cum-metaphysical experience in ‘Overture’ and ‘sacrifice’, Christopher Okigbo’s poems in Heavensgate. Definitions of key terms will be highlighted with respect to the question.

According to Cross (1983:1171) ‘Religious is a technical term for a member of a religious order or congregation’. He further stressed in general terms that religious is a theological concept dealing with beliefs and sacred matters like the study of gods and the questions about the nature of divine. “Metaphysics is the study of existence or being in general” Isaac and Allan(1989:805). Traditionally, metaphysics refers to the branch of philosophy that attempts to understand the fundamental nature of all realities whether visible or invisible. Aristotle used this term to refer to some of his works which was in form of theological philosophy but today it is used to mean the same as ‘spiritual’ though ‘spiritual’ refers to a realm of spirits while ‘metaphysical’ is a general term which includes the spirits or something highly abstract, over theoretical. On the other hand, metaphysical poets are generally described as those poets who do not follow the conventions of Elizabethan period but instead they use metaphysical conceit as a tool for enriching their poems breaking rules of rhyming, iambic pentameter, rhythm and general rules raised during Elizabethan period.

The publication of heavensgate by Christopher Okigbo marked his initiation return to the African cultural heritage and the deeply-felt personal rebirth with the goddess of his tradition called Idoto. As used in ‘Overture poem’ Idoto is a mother goddess of the village stream in the poet’s hometown known as Ojoto, in eastern Nigeria. The oilbean is part of the mangrove ecology in this river town which was one of the emblems being worshiped by the river goddess Idoto. The poet discloses his religious and metaphysical experience by bringing out family beliefs into the poems. His vision for the spiritual quest led the poet to classical myths and the writing of melodic modes.

Focusing our discussion on these two poems ‘overture’ and ‘sacrifice’ It is clear that the genre or the form of these poems are lyrical panegyrics. Lyrical, because the persona is basically trying to express his feelings and attitudes towards his religious and metaphysical experience in his life. On the other hand, it is Panegyrics because the persona is trying to appease the gods and the metaphysical or spiritual emotions of his African tradition. Much as we belong to the society, we cannot run away from certain facts in Okigbo’s poems in Heavensgate. There is much tenderness in evocation of the poet’s physical environment, family relations and the religious denomination. These three factors dominate in Okigbo’s Heavensgate. The poems read;

OVERTURE SACRIFICE
Before you, mother Idoto, Thundering drums and cannons
naked I stand, in palm grove:
before your watery presence, the spirit is in ascent.
a prodigal,
I have visited,
Leaning on an oilbean, on palm beam imprinted
lost in your legend…… my pentagon-

under your power wait I I have visited the prodigal….
on bear foot,
watchman for the watchword
at heavens gate; In palm grove
Long drums and cannons:
out of the depths my cry the spirit in the ascent.
give ear and hearken.


In these two poems, the persona is an adult who uses compact language not for the masses. The setting is within the structure of ritual experience in which various influences were brought into a mantic (belief) confrontation with one another within the mystical experience.

Christopher Okigbo’s poems in Heavensgate reflects his autobiographical experience in religious and spiritual realms. The persona in ‘Sacrifice’ poem, abandoned his ancestral spirits and was just on the crossroad between modern and traditional beliefs. His reaching to sacrifice point shows that he was carrying a religious culture of doubtful morality. The persona was passing through a literally journey of self discovery. This is similar to what was happening in the forty to sixties when many Africans were raising questions about who they were and to which domains they belonged to in Africa. Many artists during that time including the persona in sacrifice poem found their answers in cultural lines which had opened up amongst the African communities in the years of black renaissance thereby, shedding the yolk of colonialism. The prodigal’s pursuit of his identity especially the symbolic terrain is defined by the Christian cosmology or Christian ethics and moral theology. Sacrifice poem is clearly a religious-cum-metaphysical experience of the persona as he respects the spiritual realms of existence. He realized that one becomes a person only by virtue of proper fit between the pre-natal vowel and the over-arching destiny uniting the succession of ancestors that constitutes the family tree. We can see that the persona is in an act of submission as he begins his ritual cleansing and self-dedication to the guiding spirits of his tradition.

Thundering drums and Cannons
in palm grove:
the spirit is in ascent.

De-de Vries (1974) explained the symbols in this poem in the following way;

“Thunder is the voice of the supreme deity (god like) expressing
his anger, assent(agreement to proposal) or proclamation. page 466”
“Drum is a sacrificing altar, mediator between heaven and earth.
It also symbolizes the dispenser of evil spirits. Also symbolizes
ecstasy for religious and fertility purposes page 149”
“Palm (tree) can symbolize gods, victory and elevation. Palm may
also be referring to the hand touching the shrines, page 356”
“Grove is associated with religious, primitive worship of vegetative
nature and also associated with nymphs or goddesses, page 229”
“Cannon symbolizes heavy voice from the high authority beyond
human reasoning”.

“Thundering drums and cannons”(Sacrifice: verse one) suggests that the Guiding spirits are angry with the persona who is at the drum or sacrificing altar before these spirits. The use of palm grove in verse two is meant to demonstrate that the gods being talked about here are nymphs associated with religious primitive of worshiping vegetative nature. Nevertheless, from the title of the poem ‘sacrifice’ itself, it is noted that the persona is in an act of submission or self-dedication to the guiding spirits of his tradition and that, this sacrifice is being done on the sacrificing alter or to the mediator between the earth and heaven. The persona is uttering these words while his five fingers (“my pentagon” verse 6 sacrifice) of the hand are touching (imprinted line 5) the guiding spirits on the alter where the sacrifice is being done. The ‘palm beam’ is referring to the religious shrines of primitive worship of vegetative nature as he say

I have visited,
on palm beam imprinted
my pentagon-

In stanza three which says “I have visited, the prodigal…….” suggests that the persona never followed his tradition actively in the sense of offering sacrifices and the poet’s anagnorisis came in a little bit late and we see the intimations of the poet’s new consciousness by realizing that he cannot do without them. And therefore, he decided to confess and offer the sacrifices as demanded by the tradition. Because of this negligence, the guiding spirits are angry with him and we see this from the first line in the poem “thundering drums and cannons”. But because the persona has been restored by the effort made to revisit the shrines, the grove (nymphs) have elevated him or her to the original state. This is shown in the first and last stanza as the verse say ‘the spirit is in ascent’ reflecting that he is subsequently transformed into an initiatory essences and charged to begin a new life. The restoration of this prodigal persona in ‘sacrifice poem’ can be backed up by the initial words of the author in his daily life experience. In 1967, the year Okigbo was to die in the Nigerian civil war, Okigbo told Whitelaw in an interview that:

I do not feel that as a Christian I have been uprooted from my own
village gods. We have a goddess and a god in our family, our ancestral
gods. And though I do not worship these actively, in the sense of offering
them periodic sacrifices, I still feel that they are the people protecting me
(quoted by maja-peace in Okigbo’s ‘collected poems’ published in 1989)

This interview can be regarded as confessional statement to the tutelary spirits of the African homeland from which his experience is based. He remains conscious of the subliminal element in his being that protects and saves his prodigal life. Now in this poem he is only asking the spirits (“Mother Idoto”) to pardon and restore him. The interview itself reflects the religious-cum-metaphysical experience of the poet Identity in relation to “overture” and “Sacrifice”.

In ‘overture’ the Persona is more like reciting or chanting from the rituals of Idoto, a river goddess of the author’s village. This incantation is intruding readers of this poem into the persona’s cultural and religious experience. From the first two stanzas, readers can tell that the persona is in complete submission at a sacred place as he says ‘naked I stand, before your watery presence’ and that a secrete culture is being practiced because the images used tells us that; this poem is a translation from the oral praises of mother Idoto and its occasion composition was during the worship of mother Idoto. In1989, an edition book of Christopher Okigbo was published by Paul Theroux and Adewale Maja-peace entitled ‘Collected Poems’. The images in heavensgate from this book reflected that; ‘Idoto is the goddess of the village stream in the poet’s hometown Ojoto, in eastern Nigeria; the oilbean is part of the mangrove ecology in this riverine town and it is one of the emblems of Idoto’s worship.

“Before you, Mother Idoto” (overture: Verse one) suggests that the persona is addressing a female figure that is superior in nature. Line two affirms the compliance or the complete submission of the persona to the omniscient spiritual figure.
The images in ‘Overture’ clearly show that the poem is a reflection of religious and metaphysical experience of the persona. In addition, the persona chose ‘water’ as an image because that’s where the river goddess Idoto is found. The oilbean in the fifth line of ‘overture’ justifies the mangrove ecology of Idoto’s emblem worship. These images are not found in the Elizabethan period and therefore, the author Christopher Okigbo can be regarded as a metaphysical poet. In Overture, Okigbo begins by finding himself before the watery presence of Idoto. He is naked, a supplicate offering himself as a sacrifice to his own poetic impulse. From these explanations, Dathone wrote in ‘black Orpheus’: “Okigbo’s poetry in Heavensgate is about the evolution of a personal religion and his spiritual experience”.


In the last stanza of ‘overture’, Watchman suggests that the persona is a man and Heavensgate is an experience to his life. The persona is in complete submission to the guiding spirits as he say “under your power wait I on bare foot” and basically pleading for acceptance as the last verse says ‘give ear and hearken’ to mean please listen to me. ‘Overture’ is closely related to ‘sacrifice’ in the sense that the persona in both poems intends to construct a spiritual sanctuary to accommodate the most cherished affinities, his most deep-seated instincts and sensibilities. The essence of all this is that as the persona takes the literally journey of self-discovery through a wide range of people and tongues, he will have attained a sense of his complex personality by means of a guiding beacon which he can fairly claim to be his own. The persona in these poems wrestles with residual images of religious aspects as they learn to transcend the endeavors to find themselves.

In conclusion, “Overture” and “Sacrifice” in Heavensgate initially expressed the poets complete abandonment to the goddess Idoto. It is a rite of passage in which the poet is completely enthroned by the goddess and gives himself passionately, humbly and completely to her as a prodigal son who has repented and finally decide to come home. The persona is naked before Idoto. He is lost in her legend and this verse is found in both overture and sacrifice showing how repentant and submissive the persona is in the heart before the guiding spirits. These poems review the Christianity and the traditional religions in the persona’s life and these are the religious-cum-metaphysical experiences obtained in these two poems. The ideas raised in these poems are similar to those happening in the Catholic Church like Praising Mary who is believed to be the mother of God. The persona also brings the theme of destruction of African religions by the European Christian missionaries. The persona employs what Eliot called the mythical method which involves abandoning logical metaphysical composition and using myth and indirect references to relate traditional religions and modern Christianity. Although Okigbo’s poems in Heavensgate ‘Overture’ and ‘Sacrifice’ are complex and dense, containing references of his traditional culture and metaphysical experience, they remind Africans on the importance of their religious faith in ritual and spiritual realms. Okigbo would be criticized internationally in ‘Overture’ and ‘sacrifice’ for using some symbols which are not internationally recognized. There are some symbols specific to his tradition and knowing them would require someone to visit his world. In “overture” and “sacrifice” the persona is requesting for pardon from the guiding spirits. By so doing, they have disclosed their cultural beliefs and the various misadventures of the prodigal life. By ideology, these two poems attempt to explore the configuration of religious and metaphysical experience of Africans urging the spirits of their ancestors to continue to proclaim themselves even within the language that seek mantic cadenza (brilliant prophetic passage) of an African sensibility and ancestral outlook as both poems touch the theme of religiosity and metaphysical experiences of the persona.







REFERENCES


Ad de, Vries. 1974. Dictionary of Symbols and Imagery. London: North Holland
Publishing Company-Amsterdam.


Arthur Ravenscroft .1989. Religious Language and imagery in the poetry of Okara,
Soyinka and Okigbo. African religious Journal; Vol. 19.

Benston, Kimberly W. 1984. Afro-American literature. New York: Metheun.


Cross, F. L. 1983. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New Yolk:
Oxford university press.


Ellison, Ralph. 1952. Invisible Man. New Yolk: Random House.


Isaac and Allan. 1989. The Macmillan Encyclopedia. 2nd ed. Edited by Isaac and Allan.
London: Macmillan London Limited.

Ngara, Emmanuel.(1982). Ideology and form in African Poetry. London: James
Currey limited.


Okigbo, Christopher. 1962. Heavensgate. Ibadan: Mbari publication.


Okigbo, Chritopher.1971. Labyrinths. London and Ibadan: Heinemann,
Mbari publication


Okigbo, Christopher. 1989. Collected Poems. Paul Theroux and Adewale Maja-pearce,
Eds. London: Heinemann.

What is Sociology of Education?

This essay will firstly define education and sociology then it will define what sociology of education is and come up with a suitable definition on sociology of education from various definitions. This suitable definition will be discussed further because it speaks much of what goes on in education system.

Peter Snelson (1974) defines education as a condition of human
Survival. It is the means where by one generation
Transmits the wisdom, knowledge and experience
Which prepares the next generation for life duties
And pleasure.
This definition on education helps us to act with more insight and more intelligence in molding the youth in an acceptable manner. We can give a sound academic mission to the youth by teaching them survival skills such as carpentry, pottery, basketry and other survival skills which can better their lives. Human beings not only acquire new skills but also form the society. To this effect parents and teachers should work hand in hand in order to help the youths themselves have knowledge and in coming up with relevant ways it’s a matter of assisting them. By teaching the young ones, knowledge is transmitted from one generation to the next. This simply enlightens us that education is a continuous process. The statement “sky is the limit” helps us to have a wide knowledge about all aspects of education. Education prepares individuals to do things it is their responsibility to do them. For instance parents have the duty to teach children good morals in order to prepare them for the challenges ahead.

It is of paramount importance to define sociology before defining sociology of education. This is because sociology is related to sociology of education. Auguste Comte was the first man to come up with the term sociology, which means “the study of society”. A society is where a group of people live as a community. A society could be a village, a school, a rest house, a college or a university. All these units of society mentioned are part of the human beings and their social environment. Human beings belong to different groups where socialization takes place and they have influence on others.

Auguste Comte (1798) elaborates that “sociology is a study of social order or stability and change or progress of the society and its social systems or institutions”. Comte looks at interaction and interdependent among social institutions and society. He referred to institutions which exist such as education, economic, political, cultural and legal. He said there is constant ness between them and the society as well. He further elaborates that there must be values why people live together and that stability is important in education because it holds people together. Values are evaluative aspects of our belief and they involve judgment such as appreciation of beauty. Words in a society, people follow what is expected of them in order to be accepted. In society there are social changes which may be planned or not planned to follow.

Another sociologist Emile Durkheim looked at sociology as the “study of social facts which must be regarded as things, and that these social facts have influence on individuals”. To Durkheim, these facts are external to any particular biological individual. Social facts could be things a human being encounters throughout his life and could also be external forces. External forces are things which influence an individual such as school, the church, peers and many others. In other words, things around which a person comes in contact with can change, develop or progress him in terms of behavior. This means that the kind of personality one becomes depends very much on the social environment. Human beings behavior can be explained or observed in the manner which is similar to the way facts are stated that the individual is free to make choices and any out comes can be explained exclusively through the study of his or her ideas and decisions.

Generally, sociology is a “study of society or a scientific study of human interactions” sociology is the branch of science that studies behavior in groups. Sociologists are most interested in knowing how these people interact with each other. They want to know how groups influence individuals and how the individuals influence the group. Sociologists have discovered that human beings do not know themselves until they are in groups. They know everything about themselves because other human beings create a society and live according to that society, social reality. Social realities are given guidelines of a society and see things from society. They share values, symbol, pattern of behavior and territory. Sociology does not solve problems, but get information to help the people solve problems. Sociology offers a perspective (a view of the world). View of the world is referred to as a sociological perspective or as a sociological imagination. This opens a window to another world. Hence, sociologists have come up with different definitions of sociology of education. It is easy to study sociology of education after discovering what sociology is.

Ezewu (1990) defines sociology of education as “a scientific study of human behavior in groups having for its aim the convening of regularities and order in each behavior and expressing these sceneries as theoretical propositions that describe a wide variety of patterns of behavior in learning environment”. This definition shows that there is a very close relationship between the individual and the society. It looks at how children become fully-fledged socialization. Further more, the definition talks about social relations in a learning environment and network of such relations which are known as society.

Peter Harold (1968) defines sociology of education as “the study of origins, organizations, institutions and development of human society”. His definition refers to the study of sociology of education by using the historical approach. It studies initial specific conditions. For any institution, organization or society to develop properly there is needed to trace the origin or background. In other words this approach explains how society and the institution develop. It looks at interactions within the society and also society and other institutions. There are also possible outcomes or achievements of these interactions.

Emile Durkheim (1858-1917) who is regarded as the ‘father’ of sociology of education clearly defines sociology of education as “a systematic study sociological perspective”. This definition of sociology of education is suitable because it speaks much of what goes on in education system. It clearly states that it is important to know sociology before knowing what sociology of education is. This is because sociology is related t sociology of education.

The statement “sociological perspective” stresses the social context in which people live such as society. Society is a group of people who share a certain culture and a territory. Perspective is a view of the world and it is referred to as a sociological preservative or sociological imagination. Durkheim’s statement helps us to understand that sociological perspective opens a window to another world or unfamiliar world. As we look at other world or our own, sociological imagination casts another form of light on us. This in return enables us to gain a new vision of social life. In other words it helps us to find out why people do what they do like eating, talking and many more. Sociological imagination also looks at social locations. A social location is where people are located in a particular society. Sociologists consider jobs, age, race, income, gender and they also look at types of jobs we are doing in order to understand our behavior. Behavior is studied in order to discover the regularities and order in that behavior and expressing these discoveries as theoretic prospective or generalization that describes a wide variety of patterns of behavior. The discovering of these irregularities is due to the fact that man has culture and living in a group demands interaction with one another in that group.

Durkheim further stated that sociology of education is the “study of education”. He applied a sociological approach to the understanding of education system unlike other sociologists who defined the term sociology of education. He also came up with idea that education should be studied from the sociological perspective which helps students to understand sociology of education. To Durkheim school system is the main focus of sociology of education. To this effect he looked at the structure of the school and interactions in the school. He looked at the way individuals interact, that is teachers with fellow teachers, teachers with pupils, administrators with fellow administrators, administrator with teachers and pupils and pupils with fellow pupil. He looked at how discipline can be maintained in schools since in sociology of education; we try to understand the problem of education from a sociological perspective. Durkheim not only looked at interactions within the school but also the relationship between the school and the community. He looked at the outcome of these interactions because individuals have influence on other individuals and society has influence on the education system.

Apart from the structure of the school, Durkheim also looked at the functions of education and society. He believed that it was the duty of education to make responsible and reliable citizens out of school children. To work out this, parents and teachers need to work hand in hand to achieve a common goal. The school can make the behavior of a learner depending on the type of administration in which a learner is found. Looking at what Durkheim noted on education, there is correlation on what he said and the education system in Zambia . If we look at the education system in Zambia we find that some schools succeed while others fail. This is as a result of bad schools, effective schools and good schools. In terms of organization. In bad schools the performance of pupils and teachers is not as expected. This may be due to poor quality of education. Effective schools are schools which produce good results due to effective teaching but do not make learners to be accepted members of the society intern of behavior. Where as in good schools there are higher expectations, good monitoring, safe and orderly environment. For a learner to perform as expected to achieve a common goal, there should be a conducive environment. In other words there should be mutual relationship. To elaborate more on Durkhiem’s ideas, where ever there is a group of people, there is participation, cohesion (unit) and conflict. These lead us then to understanding that sociology of education becomes the study of association in terms of participation and unit (cohesion) in schools. On the other hand, it becomes the study of disassociation in terms of conflicts in schools. Durkheim also observed that there is no single education system which is true. If we look at the education system in Zambia , it does not mean that it is the same education system that prevails in other countries. The curriculum in Zambia is different from that in Nigeria . For example, universal primary education (UPE) scheme in Nigeria is functionally intended to ensure that every child receive formal education at least up to the primary school leaving certificate level. This is different from the Zambian system.

Durkheim believed that every society had its own education system which was shaped by the society-cultural needs. He also believed that education was the influence exerted on the young generation by the old generation and this influence was a changing process. He should that changes in education practice have a relationship with changes in societal beliefs and practice. Hence, he believed that education was a social control and transmission of knowledge.

In conclusion, Durkheim’s definition of sociology of education is the integral part of the education process. This is profe enough that his definition is suitable because someone can read his classic work on sociology and education with great interest. All in all he stands out as the founder of the discipline and the classic sociologists of education. His contribution to sociology of education has stimulated sociologist to do research in a number of areas. These areas are those that Durkheim had already researched such as function of education, relationships of education to societal change and many more. From his findings came up with the term sociology but not sociology of education as Durkheim did.






REFERENCES

1. Anderson, C.A. (1968). Education and Society. New York : Macmillan.

2. Banks, O. (1968). The Sociology of Education. London : Batfered.


3. Ezewu, E. (1969). The Sociology of Education. London : Longman Group
Ltd.

4. Huyte, E. (1969). The Role of the Teacher. London : RKP.

5. Musgrave, P.W. (1979). The sociology of Education. London : Methuen
and Co. Ltd.

6. Peter, S. (1974). Education Development in Northern Rhodesia 1883
Lusaka : Kenneth Kaunda Foundation.
http://sitwe.wordpress.com/, http://sitwe.blog.com/, http://bmsitwe.blog.com

African Education System Vs Missionary Education

The essay aims at discussing the differences between indigenous Africans education and what is brought by missionaries. This will successfully be done by discussing the topic under aims and objectives, organizational, administration, content and methods of teaching respectively. And last but not the least, a brief assessment of the value to individuals and society at large of the two types of education will be made.

The origin of education can be traced back to man’s history. This means that education existed for as long as human beings started living in their societies in Africa . This type of education was known as indigenous African education or traditional African education. This type of education existed in Africa way back before the coming of the missionaries. However, the missionaries came along with what is known as modern education or western education. Each form of education had its own strengths and weaknesses. It was only looking after the weaknesses of traditional indigenous education did the missionaries conclude that Africans were uneducated. Little did the missionaries consider the merits of indigenous African education.

Before getting down to the topic of discussion, it is necessary to understand the scope of education. M.J Kelly (1999) states that “Education is not the same as schooling, but it is a life long process conducted by many agencies”. The word education has many meanings. He further stated that it could refer to a “system or institution (a school system) to a certain activity. (Education is the action exercised by adult generation on those who are not yet ready for social life) to content (that is the Curriculum and Syllabus). To this effect, education can be categorized in three types. These are formal, informal and non-formal.

The distinction between formal, informal and Non-formal is also very important to the study of African indigenous Education and Mission Education. Formal education is the hierarchy structured, chronologically graded systems that runs from primary School to University or other forms of higher education. This is the most common type of education present even today. Non-formal education is any organized educational activity outside the establishment of formal system that is intended to serve identified learning objectives. A good example is that of conducting workshops or other forms of education intended to serve identified learning purposes. Especially at social gatherings. Informal education is the life-long process whereby every individual acquires attitudes, values, skills and knowledge from daily experiences and other educational influences and resources in each one’s environment. This is the type of education where one 1earns how to survive in life through experiences and instructions from the elders.

From the education types, it is easier to see that individuals acquire most of their knowledge, skills, attitudes and values through informal education, that is, in the home, from the media, on the streets etcetera. Otherwise, UNESCO defines Education as an organized and sustained communication process designed to bring about learning. And learning is the relatively permanent change as a result of experiences However; this refers much more to formal and non-formal education.

Since education looks mainly at the wellbeing of an individual, it can be eloquently said that education existed in every society around the world. If education never existed, then people would never have managed to survive. However, the provision of education may have differed depending on the social needs of the people in a particular society. Thus, it would be imperative to distinguish African indigenous education and that education which was brought by the missionaries.

In Africa , before the introduction of education brought by the missionaries, there was a form of education that was aimed at preparing people for a better life in society. This type of education started from childhood until such a time when an individual attains adulthood. M.J Kelly (1999) states that “although indigenous education systems can vary from one place to another, the goals of these systems are often strikingly similar. He further argued that the aim of indigenous education concerned with instilling the accepted standards and beliefs governing correct behaviour and creating unity and consensus. This looked mainly at the role of an individual in society.

On the contrary the type of education that was brought by the missionaries was aimed at making Africans learn how to read and write so that Africans can easily be converted to Christianity. Thus, the missionaries were motivated to give formal education, (that is literacy and numercy) so that Africans could read the Bible (evangelization) and spread the gospel to others. The missionaries rejected much of tradition way of life because their desire was to convert as many as possible to Christianity religion. Thus, the education provided was biased towards religion. The more the indigenous people learnt how to read the Bible the higher the chances that they would be drown -to the Christian faith.

In terms of organisation, Ocitti (1973) argued that in African indigenous education, the powers were limited to tribal social division (family, lineage or village, clan, chiefdom). Organisations mainly describe the social relationships that existed, that are the rights and duties of husbands, wives and children. It also looks at whether a particular tribe is patrilineal, that is, Children belong to the husband or matrilineal where descent is towards the mother’s side or family. The relation between relatives (for example mothers or father’s brother) was also seen to have special importance to a child’s growing up.
The organisation on the part of the missionaries was also limited to further their beliefs.

Although they were all Christians, their doctrines differed in respect to their churches. For instance, the London Missionary Society (LMS) had its own principles which were different from the Jesuit Father’s principles or doctrines. No wonder Snelson (1974) and Mwanakatwe (1974) shows that these churches would fight for areas of domination. No other missionary society was to encroach in another missionary society’s land. Thus each missionary society organized itself and therefore, organized the kind of education it felt was going to be effective in raising the number of converts.

In African indigenous education, administration was done by the elders. The entire tribe or chiefdom would be administered by the kings or chiefs who would either be elected or put in power through hereditary. The chief was mainly assisted by the council which composed of the elder men of the tribe. It was some of these elders who would play a bigger role in the provision of indigenous education. This is because the education was mainly towards the inculcation of good morals.

This was different from the administration on the part of the missionaries. The missionaries were run by the ruling government, for instance the British South African Company (BSACo) in the case of Zambia . This government was responsible for the distribution of the areas of domination for the mission society (land distribution). However, the government did not play a role In the provision of education because they did not see the benefits that would come out of it. So the missionaries were the ones who took it upon themselves as they wanted Christianity to grow.

As earlier mentioned, the content of indigenous education had much stress on the communal and social aspect rather than on an individual. This was done mainly to prepare boys and girls for adult life in households, villages and tribes. That is why the type of education provided was “static”. This means that it was unchanging from generation to generation, in other words it was rather conservative and not innovative. Thus it was the same education that was practiced over and over for years. (Mwanakatwe (1974))

The content of indigenous education had its paramount importance on the detailed knowledge of physical environment and the skills to exploit it. For instance, hunting on the part of men and farming the part of females. It also had its stress on togetherness or unity as well as understanding the rights and obligation of each individual in a particular society. The concept of togetherness would teach the indigenous people on how to live and work with others within the societies or chiefdoms. The rights and obligations will put in place the extent and limitations of individual rights. This was responsible for making sure that boys and girls understand what is required of them in a particular society.

In its content, indigenous education also included laws, moral principles obligation to ancestral spirits, to relatives and to others in groups or tribe. (Mwanakatwe: 1996). It is from these lessons that children would learn to respect elders as well as pay allegiance to the spirits if they wanted their days of their lives to be extended.

In contrast, the content of the education provided by the missionaries was only biased towards religion. Snelson (1974) argued that the education provided had stress on bible doctrines, agriculture, Carpentry, black smithering and other skills that would help people raise their standards after which they would be drawn to the Christian religion. This type of education had no appeal to the way people had hitherto transmitted wisdom knowledge and experiences from one generation to the next. This means that the missionaries did not consider the indigenous African education to benefit them in any way neither did they consider how helpful it was even to the Africans themselves.

The other point is that the kind of education that was brought by the missionaries was too bookish, that is the reason why the Phelps stokes Commission came to rescue most African nations like Zambia . It recommended that type of education that would be responsive to the needs of the African community. This is a clear indication that even though the missionaries brought their education, it did not by all means consider the best type of education to be given to the indigenous Africans. (Snelson (1974).

The other difference is seen in terms of “competion”- the Indigenous education encouraged togetherness or corporation rather than competition. In short, competing was discouraged in any way possible; instead unit was always the talk of the day in indigenous education.

Yet the education brought by the missionaries was too competitive. It had the principle based on performance. This meant that the only the best students were to proceed to he next level. Thus the underdogs will always remain behind. These principles are present even today.

The methods of teaching used in indigenous education were plain and similar because they were all based on doing. It was planned from childhood to adulthood. So children would learn through “imitations” Men would work, hunt or play and boys would imitate. Women would also do the house chores in the presence of their daughters and later tell them to do likewise. Sometimes, especially at evening time, children would learn through oral literature as elders told education stories while sited around a fire. This was actually the time when fear and punishment was used as motivators for learning and behaviour. For instance, children would be told to stand still if elders are passing and never to answer harshly if elders are rebuking them. They used to be told that defaulters would grow hair on the neck or the earth would open and swallow them. Thus the children would adhere to the instructions out of fear.

The other methods used were through social ceremonies and initiation ceremonies. The later is where a boy or girl was taken in seclusion after attaining puberty. The men were taught to work hard and provide for their families while the women were taught to care for their husbands, children and the entire family. It was during this time that men and women were taught to participate in adult activities fully (that is, fishing, hunting, housekeeping etcetera). (Kelly 1999).

However, the type of education brought by the missionaries was all formal. Africans would be taught how to read and write in a classroom setup. Even some practical skills like carpentry, building would require someone to give formal instructions. This kind of education today shows the kind of methods they wanted to use even in olden days. Hence their constraints were that they were just setting up this kind of education. This kind of education was too bookish, therefore was not conforming to the needs of the indigenous people even at community level.

M. J Kelly (1999) argues that both forms of education had their own strength and weaknesses. Indigenous Africa education was said to be weak because it was static, conservative and not very open to change or innovations. This means that its world’s view was restricted because it could not cope with the dynamic needs of the modern world. Kelly further stated that, “indigenous education was orally based, without any written record”. This form of education only conformed to the past traditions rather than the spirit of inquiry. Thus had a limited understanding of scientific processes, innovativeness or change.

However, it was recommended for its strength as Kelly puts it, “ traditional education was meaningful, unifying, holistic, effective, practical and relevant to the individual as well as the community at large. It created strong human bonds because it involved the whole community. It was also recommended for the fact that there was separation between education ands the world of work. Thus, it reached out to and educated the whole person.

On the other hand, western or the education brought by the missionaries was seen to be biased towards missionary work or the spread of religion, it worked much against the demerits of indigenous African education. Thus, it was said to be useful as it encouraged innovativeness and competition so as to attain modernisation of an individual and in turn modernize the whole society or chiefdom.

African indigenous education was valuable to both the individual as well as the society. An individual benefited in that emphasis was much more concerned with instilling the accepted standards and beliefs governing correct behaviour. In addition, indigenous did not encourage competitiveness in intellectual and practical matters instead it created unity consensus among members of a particular society or tribe. Thus indigenous education was not only concerned with socialization of younger generation into norms, religion, moral beliefs and collective opinions of the wider society, it also laid a very strong emphasis on acquisition of knowledge which was useful to the individual and society as whole. (Kelly 1999).

Western education is also seen to be useful to an individual as well as the society. Western education promotes innovative thinking. Change is the very nature of life therefore, an individual needs to develop. This will in turn develop the whole society or country. Since the nature of indigenous education did not allow change or was said to be static, it was said to discourage both the individual and the society at large. Thus, western education encouraged competition which goes in line with innovative thinking. (BRAY, M)

In a recap, indigenous forms of education served the needs of the community as a whole. Hence, indigenous education theory hold that each of the individual’s relationship affects and is affected by all the other members of the community. While western education was used was said to be too bookish and somewhat divorced from the life and culture of the wider community. No wonder M.J Kelly concluded that there is the need to harmonize and integrate the best elements of both indigenous and western form of education in order to create more viable system of education in Africa .






















References


Blakemore and Cooksey (1980). A Sociology of Education for Africa . London Allen and Unwin Publishers.


Bray M and Stephens (1986). Education and Society in Africa, London : Edward Arnold


Kelly, M.J. (1998). Origin and Development of Schools in Zambia , Lusaka : Image Publishers Limited.


Mwanakatwe M.J. (1974). The growth of Education in Zambia Since Independence, Lusaka : Oxford UNZA Press.


Ocitti, J.P (1973). African Indigenous education. Nairobi : East Africa Literature Bureau


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INDUCTIVE, DEDUCTIVE AND COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING STRATEGIES IN ZAMBIAN LANGUAGES

COMPOSITION OF SHOT INTRODUCTORY EXERCISES BASED ON INDUCTIVE, DEDUCTIVE AND COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING STRATEGIES IN ZAMBIAN LANGUAGES
16.0 Introduction

Over a period of time, several factors had been at play which influenced scholars to start changing the methods of language teaching from one approach to another. Inductive, Deductive and communicative language teaching strategies are amongst the several methods used in the teaching of language. The discussion in this paper will involve these three methods with respect to the objectives followed. Firstly, the paper will discuss the methods in detail and the various terminologies used in the question. Secondly, the paper will compose shot introductory exercises with respect to the question in Tumbuka language with the glosses in English and finally, give the conclusion.

17.0 DEFINITION OF TERMINOLOGIES.
Many scholars in linguistics and other fields of study have attempted to define different language teaching methods and approaches in various and more similar ways. However, the meaning and focus of these different definitions on the methods are principally the same in terms of focus. Mackey (1965: 7) argued that
The only valid statements about the inductive language teaching approach
are those arrived at by observing linguistic facts, classifying them and making
generalisations about what is observed and classified. Contrary to inductive
approach, the deductive approach perceives a pattern, constructs a theoretical
model, and tests to see how much can be deduced from it.
Unlike the deductive approach which is teacher centred and usually starts from general rule explanation to specific, inductive language teaching is pupil centred. It starts from specific to general.

Littlewood (1981:1) defined the communicative language teaching approach as “that type of an approach which pays systematic attention to functional as well as structural aspects of language, combining these into a more fully communicative perspective”. In addition, Lungu (2006:9) also stressed the fact that this approach emphasize on the student’s communicative skill by designing teaching and learning materials that promotes communicative skills of the pupils in real life situations such as dramatisation, role-playing and simulation.

Extensions are kinds of verbal suffixes. Following M. Guthrie, these suffixes may be called extensions because they extend primitive radicals to produce derived radicals. They take many forms such as the passive as in Kukaka ‘to tie’ > Kukakika ‘to be arrested/tied’, reciprocal as in Kuwona ‘to see’ > kuwonana ‘to see each other’.

A tense is a very important feature of Bantu languages. In many of these languages, the past is divided between the past of today (Hodiernal past) and the past before today (prehodiernal past). The tense marker in Tumbuka language follows just after the subject marker as in angwiza ‘He/she came today’ compare to akiza ‘he/she came before today’. What is in bold shows the tense marker.

Nouns and adjectives are derived from verbs in most Bantu languages. E.g. Lemba (verb) ‘write’ > Kalemba ‘writer’ and Kula (verb) ‘grow’ > Chikulu (adjective) ‘something big’, respectively. However, it should be pointed out here that it is not easy to derive adjectives from verbs in some Bantu languages like Tumbuka.

3. O COMPOSITION OF SHOT INTRODUCTORY EXERCISES
3.1 Using Communicative language teaching approach to teach how to derive nouns and adjectives from verbs correctly in speaking and writing and writing.

Class: Grade Nine M.
Subject: Tumbuka Language.
Type of lesson: Structure.
Topic: How to derive Nouns and adjective from Verbs.
Objective: By the end of this lesson, PSBAT correctly derive Nouns and adjective from Verbs in speaking and writing.
TEACHER ACTIVITY PUPIPL ACTIVITY


3.2 Using Deductive Approach to teach Verbal Extensions
Class: Grade Nine M.
Subject: Tumbuka Language.
Type of lesson: Structure.
Topic: How to derive Nouns and adjective from Verbs.
Objective: By the end of this lesson, PSBAT correctly derive Nouns and adjective from Verbs in speaking and writing.
TEACHER ACTIVITY PUPIPL ACTIVITY




3.3 Using Inductive Approach to teach Tense Maker of the immediate past tense
Class: Grade Nine M.
Subject: Tumbuka Language.
Type of lesson: Structure.
Topic: How to derive Nouns and adjective from Verbs.
Objective: By the end of this lesson, PSBAT correctly derive Nouns and adjective from Verbs in speaking and writing.
TEACHER ACTIVITY PUPIPL ACTIVITY



REFERENCES
Jack C. R &Theodore S. R .1986. Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching; a description and Analysis. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Lungu E. C. 2006. The Effectiveness of Communicative Approaches and Traditional
Methods on Reading and writing Achievement in English in Grade
Eight in Selected Zambian Basic schools. Thesis. Lusaka: University
of Zambia.

Mackey. W. F. 1965. Language Teaching Analysis. London and Harlow: Longmans,
Green & Co LTD.

Sociology of Education

This essay will first define education and sociology then it will define what sociology of education is and come up with a suitable definition on sociology of education from various definitions. This suitable definition will be discussed further because it speaks much of what goes on in education system.

Peter Snelson (1974) defines education as a condition of human
Survival. It is the means where by one generation
Transmits the wisdom, knowledge and experience
Which prepares the next generation for life duties
And pleasure.
This definition on education helps us to act with more insight and more intelligence in molding the youth in an acceptable manner. We can give a sound academic mission to the youth by teaching them survival skills such as carpentry, pottery, basketry and other survival skills which can better their lives. Human beings not only acquire new skills but also form the society. To this effect parents and teachers should work hand in hand in order to help the youths themselves have knowledge and in coming up with relevant ways it’s a matter of assisting them. By teaching the young ones, knowledge is transmitted from one generation to the next. This simply enlightens us that education is a continuous process. The statement “sky is the limit” helps us to have a wide knowledge about all aspects of education. Education prepares individuals to do things it is their responsibility to do them. For instance parents have the duty to teach children good morals in order to prepare them for the challenges ahead.

It is of paramount importance to define sociology before defining sociology of education. This is because sociology is related to sociology of education. Auguste Comte was the first man to come up with the term sociology, which means “the study of society”. A society is where a group of people live as a community. A society could be a village, a school, a rest house, a college or a university. All these units of society mentioned are part of the human begins social environment. Human begins belong to different groups where socialization takes place and they have influence on others.

Auguste Comte (1798) elaborates that “sociology is a study of social order or stability and change or progress of the society and its social systems or institutions”. Comte looks at interaction and interdependent among social institutions and society. He referred to institutions which exist such as education, economic, political, cultural and legal. He said there is constant ness between them and the society as well. He further elaborates that there must be values why people live together and that stability is important in education because it holds people together. Values are evaluative aspects of our belief and they involve judgment such as appreciation of beauty. Words in a society, people follow what is expected of them in order to be accepted. In society there are social changes which may be planned or not planned to follow.

Another sociologist Emile Durkheim looked at sociology as the “study of social facts which must be regarded as things, and that these social facts have influence on individuals”. To Durkheim, these facts are external to any particular biological individual. Social facts could be things a human being encounters throughout his life and could also be external forces. External forces are things which influence an individual such as school, the church, peers and many others. In other words, things around which a person comes in contact with can change, develop or progress him in terms of behavior. This means that the kind of personality one becomes depends very much on the social environment. Human beings behavior can be explained or observed in the manner which is similar to the way facts are stated that the individual is free to make choices and any out comes can be explained exclusively through the study of his or her ideas and decisions.

Generally, sociology is a “study of society or a scientific study of human interactions” sociology is the branch of science that studies behavior in groups. Sociologists are most interested in knowing how these people interact with each other. They want to know how groups influence individuals and how the individuals influence the group. Sociologists have discovered that human beings do not know themselves until they are in groups. They know everything about themselves because other human beings create a society and live according to that society, social reality. Social realities are given guidelines of a society and see things from society. They share values, symbol, pattern of behavior and territory. Sociology does not solve problems, but get information to help the people solve problems. Sociology offers a perspective (a view of the world). View of the world is referred to as a sociological perspective or as a sociological imagination. This opens a window to another world. Hence, sociologists have come up with different definitions of sociology of education. It is easy to study sociology of education after discovering what sociology is.

Ezewu (1990) defines sociology of education as “a scientific study of human behavior in groups having for its aim the convening of regularities and order in each behavior and expressing these sceneries as theoretical propositions that describe a wide variety of patterns of behavior in learning environment”. This definition shows that there is a very close relationship between the individual and the society. It looks at how children become fully-fledged socialization. Further more, the definition talks about social relations in a learning environment and network of such relations which are known as society.

Peter Harold (1968) defines sociology of education as “the study of origins, organizations, institutions and development of human society”. His definition refers to the study of sociology of education by using the historical approach. It studies initial specific conditions. For any institution, organization or society to develop properly there is needed to trace the origin or background. In other words this approach explains how society and the institution develop. It looks at interactions within the society and also society and other institutions. There are also possible outcomes or achievements of these interactions.

Emile Durkheim (1858-1917) who is regarded as the ‘father’ of sociology of education clearly defines sociology of education as “a systematic study sociological perspective”. This definition of sociology of education is suitable because it speaks much of what goes on in education system. It clearly states that it is important to know sociology before knowing what sociology of education is. This is because sociology is related t sociology of education.

The statement “sociological perspective” stresses the social context in which people live such as society. Society is a group of people who share a certain culture and a territory. Perspective is a view of the world and it is referred to as a sociological preservative or sociological imagination. Durkheim’s statement helps us to understand that sociological perspective opens a window to another world or unfamiliar world. As we look at other world or our own, sociological imagination casts another form of light on us. This in return enables us to gain a new vision of social life. In other words it helps us to find out why people do what they do like eating, talking and many more. Sociological imagination also looks at social locations. A social location is where people are located in a particular society. Sociologists consider jobs, age, race, income, gender and they also look at types of jobs we are doing in order to understand our behavior. Behavior is studied in order to discover the regularities and order in that behavior and expressing these discoveries as theoretic prospective or generalization that describes a wide variety of patterns of behavior. The discovering of these irregularities is due to the fact that man has culture and living in a group demands interaction with one another in that group.

Durkheim further stated that sociology of education is the “study of education”. He applied a sociological approach to the understanding of education system unlike other sociologists who defined the term sociology of education. He also came up with idea that education should be studied from the sociological perspective which helps students to understand sociology of education. To Durkheim school system is the main focus of sociology of education. To this effect he looked at the structure of the school and interactions in the school. He looked at the way individuals interact, that is teachers with fellow teachers, teachers with pupils, administrators with fellow administrators, administrator with teachers and pupils and pupils with fellow pupil. He looked at how discipline can be maintained in schools since in sociology of education; we try to understand the problem of education from a sociological perspective. Durkheim not only looked at interactions within the school but also the relationship between the school and the community. He looked at the outcome of these interactions because individuals have influence on other individuals and society has influence on the education system.

Apart from the structure of the school, Durkheim also looked at the functions of education and society. He believed that it was the duty of education to make responsible and reliable citizens out of school children. To work out this, parents and teachers need to work hand in hand to achieve a common goal. The school can make the behavior of a learner depending on the type of administration in which a learner is found. Looking at what Durkheim noted on education, there is correlation on what he said and the education system in Zambia . If we look at the education system in Zambia we find that some schools succeed while others fail. This is as a result of bad schools, effective schools and good schools. In terms of organization. In bad schools the performance of pupils and teachers is not as expected. This may be due to poor quality of education. Effective schools are schools which produce good results due to effective teaching but do not make learners to be accepted members of the society intern of behavior. Where as in good schools there are higher expectations, good monitoring, safe and orderly environment. For a learner to perform as expected to achieve a common goal, there should be a conducive environment. In other words there should be mutual relationship. To elaborate more on Durkhiem’s ideas, where ever there is a group of people, there is participation, cohesion (unit) and conflict. These lead us then to understanding that sociology of education becomes the study of association in terms of participation and unit (cohesion) in schools. On the other hand, it becomes the study of disassociation in terms of conflicts in schools. Durkheim also observed that there is no single education system which is true. If we look at the education system in Zambia , it does not mean that it is the same education system that prevails in other countries. The curriculum in Zambia is different from that in Nigeria . For example, universal primary education (UPE) scheme in Nigeria is functionally intended to ensure that every child receive formal education at least up to the primary school leaving certificate level. This is different from the Zambian system.

Durkheim believed that every society had its own education system which was shaped by the society-cultural needs. He also believed that education was the influence exerted on the young generation by the old generation and this influence was a changing process. He should that changes in education practice have a relationship with changes in societal beliefs and practice. Hence, he believed that education was a social control and transmission of knowledge.

In conclusion, Durkheim’s definition of sociology of education is the integral part of the education process. This is profe enough that his definition is suitable because someone can read his classic work on sociology and education with great interest. All in all he stands out as the founder of the discipline and the classic sociologists of education. His contribution to sociology of education has stimulated sociologist to do research in a number of areas. These areas are those that Durkheim had already researched such as function of education, relationships of education to societal change and many more. From his findings came up with the term sociology but not sociology of education as Durkheim did.






REFERENCES

7. Anderson, C.A. (1968). Education and Society. New York : Macmillan.

8. Banks, O. (1968). The Sociology of Education. London : Batfered.


9. Ezewu, E. (1969). The Sociology of Education. London : Longman Group
Ltd.

10. Huyte, E. (1969). The Role of the Teacher. London : RKP.

11. Musgrave, P.W. (1979). The sociology of Education. London : Methuen
and Co. Ltd.

12. Peter, S. (1974). Education Development in Northern Rhodesia 1883

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Factor affecting the provision of basic Education in both rural and urban Zambia.

State and critically evaluate factor affecting the provision of basic Education in both rural and urban Zambia. Account for education Equality disparities existing between rural and urban area.



There are a number of factors affecting the provision of education system in both rural and urban areas of Zambia . These factors also affect the equality disparities of the education system between rural and urban areas. This paper aim at stating the factors that affect the provision of basic education at both rural and urban areas of Zambia . The paper will also account for the educational equality disparities which exist between the rural and urban areas of Zambia . This essay will start by defining some key words with respect to the question, and then it will account the main factor and other concerns of the question and finally give a conclusion.

There are a number of factors which affect the provision of basic education in Zambia at both rural and urban areas. Some of these are highlighted and critically evaluated below.

Firstly, there is human resource as a factor. The provision of basic education is largely affected by the human resource factor because there are very limited teachers at both rural and urban areas of Zambia . The teacher pupil ratio at is too high especially in rural areas. Kelly(1999) allege that if the teacher pupil ratio at any level of the education system is too high especially at basic level, the quality of education is heavily affected. This is because pupils really need attention in a number of fields in term of consultations and other academic works. It is impossible for a teacher to attend to each and every pupil especially if the margin is too big. Therefore, the human resource is one of the factors affecting the provision of education system in Zambia .

Impact on the environment is the second factor. A good provision of education must take into account the environment in which pupil learn. Both the teacher and the pupil must be free to do their work properly. Any growth at the cost of enviornment short-lives the victory of educationm system. If nothing in the school environment threatens or weakens the resource base or exacerbates the destructive impact of natural calamities and worsens the vulnerability of the teacher and pupils, the provision of the education system is automatically affected.

There is also a factor of qualified human resource. A lot of teachers at basic schools in Zambia at both rural and urban areas are not fully trained or qualified. This really affect the quality of the provision of the education system. The problem with this trend in this case is that teachers do not teach some topics which they do not fully understand. A case which Hoppock (1966) called academic poisoning where pupils are taught wrong skills and theories. In this regard , there is need for teachers to be trained and treat their respective job as professions and not anything else.

The third factor in this paper is based on the education materials. Most basic school do not have enough educational materials like books, rulers, maps, charts and many other resources needed for the provision of education to young tars. Carmody (2004) states that education without resources is like education without a future. In this case, Carmody is alleging that quality and sustainable education cannot continue or be given without any formal documentation or resources to back it up. There is need for educational materials at basic level in Zambia . The government and other individual sector need to improve in the procurement of book and other educational materials in order to improve the standard of the educational system. Therefore, there is need for teaching resources at basic level in both rural and urban areas in order to facilitate the teaching and learning processes for both the teacher and the pupil respectively.

Fourthly, there is financial factor. This factor can be rated at the national level. It is impossible to run a formal institution without some form of money especially in a modern world. Money is the limiting factor for most of the activities in which we are basically found. Teacher need to be paid. Previously, there ha been a number of strikes made by teachers in the teaching profession in trying to request for money. This strike directly affects the provision of the education system in a country like Zambia . Nevertheless, Financial I one of the biggest factors to be paid attention to.

Another factor in Zambian basic schools has to do with destination. A lot of pupils in most Zambian school are not able to go to school because they are discouraged by the distance covered in the to an from. Therefore, there is need for to consider destination for the to and from school.

Anther problem which should be considered as the factor is the curriculum and the educational policy itself. The curriculum for the basic education in Zambia doe not fully much with the things which pupils are expected to learn. What they learn and what they do in the society is completely different. However, the policy and restrictions given to teachers also have an implication to the provision of the educational system. Most teacher would like to take some personal business alongside with the teaching professions like doctors and other professions but the policy doe not empower teachers to do so. This factor naturally affects the provision of education system at basic school in both rural and urban areas.

Poverty is another factor which affects the provision of education system in most basic schools in Zambia . A lot of basic needs are not met by both teachers and pupils at both rural and urban areas and this directly affect the provision of basic education in Zambian schools. Kelly (1992) says, “poverty has stricken education the education system in mot African countries a most pupils and teachers cannot find the basic need they deserve”.

“National educational policies which affects boy and girls differently is called disparity” (Educating our future document, 1966). There are a number of education equality disparities existing between rural and urban areas. In most cases, the urban pupils are mostly favored than pupils in the rural areas of Zambia in a number of ways. Firstly, most qualified teachers are found in urban schools. This is because there are a number of opportunities available in urban areas than in the rural areas of Zambia . This a disparity on its own in terms of equality in the provision of education system in Zambian basic schools.

Secondly, Schools in urban areas usually receive the information from the ministry of education quickly and faster than schools in the rural areas of the country. This is because ministerial offices and other major educational office are based in urban areas of the country.

In Urban areas, there are a lot of schools approximately occupying between one hundred meters and five hundred meters away from each other. This kind of development automatically allows and empowers school going pupils or children to increase in number as compared to rural schools. Schools in rural areas very distantly located approximately between ten kilometers to twenty kilometers which automatically demotivates school going children to stay home.

Another disparity between rural and urban basic schools is that in the urban areas, there is better infrastructure and resources like desks and other educational materials are available than in rural areas. This disparity can also be attributed to the factor of geographical location and how it affect the provision of the education system
In conclusion, the paper has high lightened on a number of factors which affect the provision of basic education at both rural and urban areas. The essay has also reflected that urban schools are more advantaged than the rural schools in a number of ways. Access to critical services such as education, health care, and communication; strong communities; and a healthy natural environment to name a few have also been highlighted as part of the disparities between the rural and urban schools. while urban Zambian schools are advantaged upon these things, the challenges to well-being look very different in rural areas than in urban. In rural areas the provision of education make it seem more costly due to lack of resources and the teachers here find means and ways to make the learning and teaching easy for them.


REFERENCES

Carmody, B. (2004). Evolution of education in Zambia . Lusaka : Book world.

Hoppock, R. 1966. What is the real problem? America : educationalists Press

Kelly, M.J. (1999). Origin and Development of Education in Zambia , Lusaka : Image Publishers Limited.

Kelly M. J (1992). Education in a Declining Economy. Washington Dc: world Bank.

Mwanakatwe M.J. (1974). The growth of Education in Zambia Since Independence, Lusaka : Oxford UNZA Press.

Ocitti, J.P (1973). African Indigenous education. Nairobi : East Africa Literature Bureau

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Mkandawire S. B. (2007) Compare Leopold Sedar Senghor’s understanding of Negritude with Birago diop and david diop. Exemplify your comparison using one Poem from each of the three Negritude poets.

Mkandawire S. B. (2007) Compare Leopold Sedar Senghor’s understanding of Negritude with Birago diop and david diop. Exemplify your comparison using one Poem from each of the three Negritude poets. Discussion paper.

UNDERSTANDING OF THE NEGRITUDE MOVEMENT AMONGST LEOPOLD SEDAR SENGHOR, BIRAGO DIOP AND DAVID DIOP
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Negritude refers to the francophone literary movement which took place in the middle 20th century. It was a literary and ideological movement led by francophone black intellectuals, writers, and politicians. There are three scholars who are said to be the fathers of the negritude movement. These are originally from three different French colonies in Africa and the Caribbean but met while living in Paris in the early 1930s. The three fathers are Aime Cesaire who was a poet, playwright, and politician from Martinique. Leopold Sedar Senghor was a Poet and first president of Senegal. Leon Gontran Damas was a French Guyanese poet and National Assembly member. These scholars had different ideas about the purpose and styles of negritude. In an attempt to justify Negritude, Conde (1998) says;
Negritude refer to the French speaking black intellectuals during the 1930s which aimed at raising the black African culture and identity by
breaking down the established boundaries and stereotypes of
blacks that had been cultivated through several centuries of
colonial rule. This movement was led by a small group of writers
living in France, including Leopold sedar senghor, Leon Damas
and aime Cesaire.
However, this paper aim at comparing the understanding of ‘negritude’ amongst the three scholars sedar senghor, Birago Diop and David Diop.

2.0 DIFFERENT BACKGROUND INTRODUCTION
There were differences in the way black intellectuals viewed the negritude movement and where it was heading. For example, Senghor and César, who had essentially collaborated on the definition of the original movement, eventually split in their views regarding Negritude. Equally, many other scholars have different views about negritude.

2.1 THE ETYMOLOGY OF NEGRITUDE

The term negritude was coined by Aime Cesaire, from the French word nègre, which was equivalent to "black" or "Negro" in France but "nigger" in Martinique. Cesaire deliberately and proudly incorporated this derogatory word into the name of his ideological movement. (Webnet: Francophone literary movement)
Other scholars argue that the term negritude was coined by Aime Cesaire in conjunction with Leopold Sedar Senghor whilst in France during the 1920s to 1930s. In this era, Paris had a mixture of races from all over the world both blacks and whites. Some African writers like Damas, their stay in France relieved them from the colonial rulers of Africa. When American black renaissance movement emerged, most black African writers begun to reflect on their racial and cultural identity.
Their reactions first appeared in the student newspaper, L'Etudiant Noir (The Black Student, 1933-35), as a starting point, African intellectuals began their viewpoint regarding race by exploring the idea that there was a basic commonality across all black cultures. Although the student’s paper folded after a few years, the ideas expressed within its pages took root, and the Negritude movement was born. Senghor (1991)
However, the negritude movement placed a deep emphasis on the celebration and uniqueness of black, African culture and traditions.

2.2 LEOPOLD SEDAR SENGHOR. (Born 1906 and died 2001).
Senghor’s understanding of negritude is clearly reflected ‘In What Tempestuous Night’ poem in the appendix below. Firstly, Ngala (1990:24) call Senghor as an idealist in negritude whose views were slowly lapsing into romantic idealism. Lines 1 and 9 of this poem expresses some degree of romance and this is directly proving Ngala’s assertion.
Secondly, Senghor looked at negritude as a way of praising the virtues of African race in a more magnificent and lavish terms. As he says in line 9 ‘But when shall I hear your voice again, happy luminous morn?’. Where he is trying to value the virtues of the African race in a more romantic way.

Thirdly, negritude to Senghor is one's identification of one's "blackness" without reference to culture, language, or geography. In this way, "negritude" transcends the deep divisions within and between Arabs, Africans, and the African Diaspora by recognizing a common racial thread. This is supported by line 5 which says ‘O,I am lost in the treacherous paths of the forest’. Here, he is trying to reflect on his lost identity. In addition, his response to the interviews when he was in Dixion clearly reflects his understanding of the negritude movement when he said:
I feel that if I had remained a teacher, my poetry would have been gratuitous and more impoverished, for what feeds it is the communal life, the life of my people. In my poetry I certainly express my personal life, but I express myself as a black man and a proud African. (Senghor In Dixon 1991).

Fourthly, Senghor Viewed negritude as the emergence of a powerful black presence in the world of segregation. It has in many ways become the basis for Afrocentricity. Negritude as defined by Senghor is “the awareness, defense, and development of African cultural values" Elimimian (1991:25). It is arguably the basis for modern American Afrocentrism. This has been reflected in most of his poems including the one in the appendix below.

Fifthly, “The Senghorian school of negritude is concerned with the cultural, psychic and physiological aspect of the African and does not take into account the historical conditions and levels of economic development which shape human behaviour” Ngala (1990:26).

In the sixth count, Some scholars have viewed Senghor as a “poet of hope and confidence, a poet of reconciliation. He feels that the French culture has become too abstract and that the French poetic imagination has become sterile because it depended too much on the intellect. Clive (1965:5).

Other scholars argue that Senghor’s understanding of negritude together with his contemporaries is that it was a celebration of the African identity. Negritude defined the best means of expressing the essence of black identity, and he often stressed the existence of a unique black psychology. In their view, colonization had stripped their cultures of not only their uniqueness, but also the means of expressing it, via a transposition of a foreign language. In one of his many essays on the subject he stated, “emotion is black as reason is Greek.” Ironically, it reflects a state whose preface provided such an impetus to the movement of negritude as a phenomenon that would eventually disappear once the black/white racial conflict was resolved.

Some scholars like Chonde (1998) have argued that Senghor's transformation of the ideology into a political movement, as well as his insistence that Negritude was ultimately a biological phenomenon review his theoretical and practical understanding of the negritude movement. They have recited a number of his poems including line 14 of ‘in what tempestuous night’ which support the argument above.
Finally, Senghor’s understanding of negritude was also to work towards a universal evaluation of African people and their biological contributions. While advocating for the expression and celebration of traditional African customs in spirit, he rejected a return to the old ways of doing things. This was reflected in his later poems few years before he died in 2001.

2.3 BIRAGO DIOP (Born 1906 and died 1989)
He was a folklorist and a poet. His early works were based on nostalgia and he is a direct disciple of negritude.

Firstly, Birago Diop’s understanding of negritude is not as serious as compared to Senghor and David Diop but attacks it at lower rate. He believes that the west have undone Africa with their cultural issues and therefore offers no room for reconciliation with Europe. This has been reflected in most of his poems including the diptych poem which is showing the results when Africans mingled with the west.

Secondly, Birago never viewed negritude in colonialism as a process that fostered positive contact between civilizations. Instead, he always regarded imperial rule as a process of consistent and detrimental domination of the colonized culture. Although this has not been clearly reflected in diptych poem, it is consistent in most of his works.

Thirdly, he viewed Negritude in a somewhat negative manner, deeming it a philosophy that ultimately alienated cultures on the basis of race, and therefore was complicit with imperialism. Line 2 of diptych poem in the appendix.

Birago Diop rejected David Diop’s denial of race as an integral component of Negritude and black identity. In contrast to Senghor, however, and in agreement with David, many other scholars did view the reclaiming of the African self as defined by the Negritude movement as only one step in an ongoing journey to overcome colonization and finally establish a truly national culture.

In the diptych poem, Birago’s view of negritude is dual: Firstly, he is directly attacking fellow Africans and the African land including the resources for their failure to uphold and protect the interest of the land. Secondly, he is describing the actual results which took place when Africans mixed with the west especially with the French policy of assimilation. On the other hand, Birago is defending black qualities and made it clear that he was not working toward any kind of reconciliation with the West.

2.4 DAVID DIOP. (Born 1927 and died 1960).
Firstly, David Diop’s understanding of negritude is expressed in a harsh and angry manner. Although he was born in Bordeaux France to a Senegalese father and Cameroonian mother, his French upbringing and education has not stopped him from empathizing with the African plight against French colonialism. This has been reflected in most of his works and in ‘Africa’ poem in the appendix lines 12 to 24 are clear reflections on colonialism.

Secondly, David’s view of negritude is that of Dichotomy. He clearly reflects the two faces of one pervasive reality arguing that negritude involves oppression and repression. There is always a colonizer and those being colonized, Civilization of the Master and the slave, Assimilator and the assimilated. His work reflects his hatred of colonial rulers and his hope for an independent Africa. He employed a colloquial style as a tool of popular protest till 1960, Diop and his wife were killed in a plane crash returning from France to Dakar. Most of his work was destroyed with him in the crash; only the 22 poems that were published before his death remained.

Thirdly, according to David Diop negritude stressed racial differences; it was nonetheless a significant precursor to decolonization as shown in the African poem. He bitterly stressed that:
Those that do not lack love, never know the trauma of hate. Those that enjoy good health hardly understand the hell of ill-health. Those that are not exiled, may not realize the happiness symbolized by home. Those that have the mother, never fathom the agony of the orphan. Those that are free fail to comprehend the the feelings of the slave. David Diop Bitterly understood these facts and he saw Africa in the true light and rather than hiding from that reality. He faced it with courage and decided to work to change it. Diop (1983).
These views have been reflected in the poem “Africa” which traces the history of Africa from her glorious past, through slavery and colonialism to the renaissance of the race and revolution against colonialism and neo-Colonialism.

Fourthly, David Diop regarded Negritude as a part of the history of Africa, a natural and dynamic merging of European and African cultures and technology. This is reflected in line 1-7 of the African poem.

On the fifth account, David Diop viewed Negritude as yet another manifestation of a slave mentality, one that stemmed from an inherent inferiority complex. Where he discovered the black community and rediscovered Africa. To some extent, he saw negritude as the fact of being black, acceptance of this fact, and appreciation of the history, culture, and destiny of black people. He sought to recognize the collective colonial experience of Blacks - the slave trade and plantation system - and attempted to redefine it. This has been reflected in the poem ‘Africa’.

2.5 COMMON AREAS OF AGREEMENT AND SOME DISAGREMENT
Although the three Scholars gave some different views as explained above, They have a good number of similarities. Firstly, they all agree that the themes being addressed under negritude are almost the same. Sartre (1948) argues that the negritude movement is generally characterized by the following factors to any scholar;
1 Reaction to colonialization: Denunciation of Europe's lack of humanity, rejection of Western domination and ideas
2 Identity crisis: Acceptance of and pride in being black; valorization of African history, traditions, and beliefs
3 Very realistic literary style
4 Marxist ideas: Realist and idealist
Secondly, although the term Negritude was coined by Aimee Creasier, its intellectual breadth and broad cultural relevance can be attributed to the poetry of Leopold Sedar Senghor, David Diop and Birago Diop. It is evident that the three scholars developed the term negritude as a
Literary and cultural movement with the fundamental objective
Of defining black aesthetics and black consciousness against a
Background of racial injustice and discrimination around
The world (Elimimian 1991:23).
Finally, the three Scholars looked at negritude as the African exploration of Western influences. They had a new perspective on African-European relations that recognized the intertwined history of the two continents and suggested ways of settling them. They completely refuse the aspect of black inferiority and European exploitation, while marrying Africa to the virtues of the French language and the potential for African-European cultural hybridization.

3.0 CONCLUSION
This paper can be concluded in two ways: Cognitive closure and social closure
3.1 Cognitive closure
The paper has discussed the different understandings of the term negritude amongst the three scholars Senghor, David Diop and Birago Diop. It has looked at their distinct or different views on the subject matter and their similarities and finally a well rounded off conclusion has been given.
Although the negritude movement had its own disadvantages, it is clear that it provided a great impetus to African literature in the 1930s and later, helping an entire generation of authors and intellectuals to develop an awareness and appreciation of their racial and cultural identities. In doing so, the movement also helped pave the way to national and political freedom for many African countries and reminded Africans of their real Values and cultural identity.

3.2 Social closure

Most negritude writers in the movement did not use their indigenous African languages but instead used French and other languages in new ways, using them to express symbolically their connection to traditional African culture, rituals, and symbols. However, the paper is resolved by looking at the social relationships amongst the three scholars and finally a resolution has been given.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Conde, Maryse (1998), "O Brave New World", Research in African Literatures 29: 1-7, http://www.awigp.com/default.asp?numcat=conde.

Elimimian, Isaac I. 1991. Theme and Style in African Poetry. Lewiston, NJ: Edwin Mellen Press.

Reed, John and Clive Wake. 1972. French African Verse. London: Heinemann.

Reed, John and Clive Wake. 1978. A Book of African Verse. London: Heinemann.

Sartre, Jean-Paul. "Orphée Noir." Anthologie de la nouvelle poésie nègre et malgache. ed. Léopold Senghor. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France. p. xiv (1948).

Senau, K.E. and T. Vincent. 1988. A Selection of African Poetry. London: Longman.

Senghor, Léopold Sédar. 1991. The Collected Poetry. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press.


APPENDIX

In What Tempestuous Night by Senghor
What dark tempestuous night has been hiding your face?
And what claps of thunder frighten you from the bed
When the fragile walls of my breast tremble?
I shudder with cold, trapped in the dew of the clearing.
O, I am lost in the treacherous paths of the forest.
Are these creepers or snakes that entangle my feet?
I slip into the mudhole of fear and my cry is suffocated in a watery rattle.
But when shall I hear your voice again, happy luminous morn?
When shall I recognize myself again in the laughing mirror of eyes, that are large like windows?
And what sacrifice will pacify the white mask of the goddess?
Perhaps the blood of chickens or goats, or the worthless blood in my veins?
Or the prelude of my song, the ablution of my pride?

Diptych poem by Birago Diop
The Sun hung by a thread
In the depths of the Calabash dyed indigo
Boils the great Pot of Day.
Fearful of the approach of the Daughters of fire
The Shadow squats at the feet of the faithful.
The savannah is bright and harsh
All is sharp, forms and colours.
But in the anguished Silences made by Rumours
Of tiny sounds, neither hollow nor shrill,
Rises a ponderous Mystery,
A Mystery muffled and formless
Which surrounds and terrifies us.
The dark Loincloth pierced with nails of fire
Spread out on the Earth covers the bed of Night.
Fearful at the approach of the Daughters of Shadow
The dog howls, the horse neighs,
The Man crouches deep in his house.
The savannah is dark,
All is black, forms and colours
And in the anguished Silences made by Rumours
Of tiny sounds infinite or hollow or sharp
The tangled Paths of the Mystery
Slowly reveal themselves
For those who set out
And for those who return.

Africa by David Diop
Africa tell me Africa
Is this your back that is bent
This back that breaks under the weight of humiliation
This back trembling with red scars
And saying yes to the whip under the midday sun
But a grave voice answer me
Impetuous child that tree young and strong
That tree over there
Splendidly alone amidst white and faded flowers
That is your Africa springing up anew
Springing up patiently obstinately
Whose fruits bit by bit acquire
The bitter taste of liberty.

Zambia's Backwash Effects on Examinations

Mkandawire S. B. (2008) Backwash effects of national examinations on curriculum implementation in Zambia. Discussion paper

 Backwash effects of national examinations can simply be described as teaching learners to pass examinations without considering whether the skills needed for their lives and moral development are attained or not. The term backwash means the unpleasant result of an event or the negative aspects of something. The term exam means a test of a students knowledge or skill in a particular subject which results in a qualification if the student is successful. This according to Cambridge advanced learner’s dictionary (2007).
 Education should not be centered on examinations, it should focus on the promotion of the full and well-rounded development of the physical ,intellectual, social, affective, moral and spiritual qualities of all pupils so that each can develop into a complete person, for his or her own personal fulfillment and the good of society.’ Ministry of Education (MOE) (1996:29). Education should shape the lives of learners so that they become more fully human by learning survive skills than being centered on the examinations. The goals to such an aim as set by MOE (1996:5) are that of producing a learner capable of: ‘’Being animated by a personally held set of civic, moral and spiritual values; developing of an analytical, creative and constructive mind; Appreciating the relationship between scientific thought, action and technology on the one hand and sustenance of the quality of life on the other.’ Another aim looks at developing the qualities of character of an individual that society regards as important. Kelly (1999).The goal for such an aim is that the individual can freely express his or her own ideas and also exercise tolerance for other people. The individual can cherish and safeguard his or her own liberties and also promote the human rights. The other aim looks at giving scope to the individuals in order for their potential to be developed. Kelly (1999).In having such an aim ,the goal of making the individual maintain ,observe discipline and hard work as the foundation of personal and national development is achieved.
 To achieve the above stated aims and goals, MOE has come up with a curriculum, which has several definitions. Basing on the stated aims and goals of education above the best type of curriculum that can suit is that which is called the ideal or recommended curriculum. The ideal or recommended curriculum is what is proposed by scholars, researchers and evaluators as a solution to meet a need or needs and is consequently perceived as the most appropriate curriculum for learners. It is what a nation aspires to achieve. Unfortunately, as we shall see the ideal curriculum cannot be a 100% implemented because of the backwash effects of the national examinations on it .What we end up with is the achieved curriculum or experiential curriculum which is only 10%, if the implemented curriculum has not been carried out effectively. The achieved curriculum is what learners have actually learnt as a result of their interaction with the implemented curriculum. What learners have experienced as a result of what they have learnt and interaction with the teacher. What the learner has achieved is seen when the teacher gives a test.
 We see a situation where the teacher has the pressure to teach for the sake of the learners to pass the examinations and so hurries through the implemented curriculum which is what has actually been taught. The teacher tailors the teaching towards examinations and in so doing runs away from the aims ,goals and objectives of education that have been discussed above. Examinations are not the main intent of the curriculum and are not a true reflection of what education is.
 The learner after being exposed to learning should show that they have acquired attitudes and values towards things and this should bring about development in the country. In this way, education becomes important for a learner he or she should not just acquire knowledge but acquire other aspects as stated in the aims of education .However, because of the issue of examinations coming on the way, we see a situation where learners are simply drilled in factual information and leaving out the aspect of attitudes, values and skills that go into producing a wholistic individual. Take for instance, a learner who has been in the school system has to show behavioural change with regards to public property. A learner is supposed to have a positive attitude towards its protection. In most cases, what we see are negative attitudes towards public property. To this, society now asks what kind of learning is taking place in these learning institutions. No wonder we hear such comments as ‘learning has now gone to the dogs.’ For society cannot see any change in attitudes and values in the learner. The learner has not learnt any survival skills that may sustain him or her after dropping out or completing school. What is happening in schools now is simply drilling the learner for the purpose of an examination at the end of a learning experience. This makes the implementation of the curriculum to be ineffective. In Zambia as the education system stands any learner who lacks the ability to put clear thoughts on paper is seen as a failure. The natural skills, attitudes, values including knowledge processing do not matter. However, knowledge by itself has no value. Knowledge can be likened to words in the dictionary, which standing alone have no value, but becomes of value once the process of stringing them together is done. It is the putting of words together that gives them value.
 Society has a blame to share on the failure to effectively implement the curriculum, by siding with national examinations. The school system has been highly influenced by society’s value of learning which is synonymous with the number of learners that have qualified to the next level. The teacher has come to understand this from society that to teach is to produce a high number of those that qualify to the next level. The teacher has diverted from what is in the intended curriculum, they want teaching to be in line with what the learners are to achieve in an examination. The intended curriculum has captured a lot of topics to be covered but because of the examinations, the teacher picks only those topics that they feel the questions will come from. This is so because examinations in Zambia can be predicted just by gathering a lot of past papers a teacher would tell which questions are most likely to come in the examinations. The learners will then memorize the selected knowledge and then they will be given a day’s test or exam based on dictionary knowledge which will also influence employment opportunities for their entire life. Again the same society will not take their children to a school which has a low pass rate, but would rather take their children to those schools that have a high pass rate. What needs to be considered is what kind of learner is being produced at the end of a learning experience. Is it a learner who is holistic or a learner who has just acquired paper knowledge.
 In order to implement the curriculum effectively, the teacher has to be eclectic. The teacher has to employ variations of teaching methods and techniques. However, this is not done to the fullest because of the issue of the exams. Towards the end of the second term the teacher diverts from the use of various teaching methods and techniques. They will simply just state the facts as they are because to them the use of techniques may delay the drilling for the exams for the learners.
 The main focus of education is to provide learning to all learners. There should be no segregation as Zambia is a signatory to Education for All, one of the millennium goals. If followed the curriculum would be fully implemented. Unfortunately, because of the examinations, what we see is that the teacher will only focus his learning activities on the average and above average learners. The teaching will be centred in line with only those that would pass the examinations. The teacher may even identify the learners that can qualify to the next level and those are the ones to receive maximum attention. The below average learners will have to fend for themselves if they are to pass the examinations. One may ask why this is so .The answer is simply the teacher will want to make a name for himself or herself and to put the school on the map that it is one of the best schools as it has a high pass rate of learners.
 As a result of the teacher centering his teaching on drilling learners for examinations, many learners in Zambia have been thrown out of school once they fail these examinations. When they leave the schools, they come out of the system with no life skills that may sustain them in life. No wonder we see a lot of youths roaming the streets doing nothing for the school system they went through did not really provide life long skills to them. One surprising thing is that, once a learner has written an examination the knowledge of factual information immediately goes out. This is so because the focus is on learning to pass the examinations. However, education is a life long process, even after school the learner should show skills, values and attitudes that were acquired in school. This problem is equally found in high learning institutions. The students are tuned to learning for the examinations. Once the examinations have been written then everything is forgotten. The learner’s attainability of learning is marked through the passing of an examination. It is a vicious cycle which is hard to break, for the system has been planted with the idea of learning in order to pass the examination. Later, when this learner goes into the field of work for example, the higher learning institutions, he also tunes the students to learn in order to pass the examinations. This will go on and on until educators realise that though examinations are important for assessment they should not be used as a mark for learner’s competence in knowledge only for education should be wholistic. It should touch all aspects of the learner’s life that is attitudes, values, skills which are important as the learner is sucked back into society. The threat of an examination should not be used at any level of education. The educators feel by threatening learners with an exam at the end of a learning experience that is when the learners are going to concentrate. Unfortunately, this is not so. The reason is that teaching involves a lot of things like the use of methods, approaches and various techniques in order to capture and arouse interest in the learner. In other words the teacher should be eclectic.
REFERENCE
Kelly, M .J.(1999).The Origins and Development of education in Zambia. From pre-colonial Times to 1996.Lusaka:Image Publishers Limited
Ministry of Education . (1996). Educating our Future. National policy on Education . Lusaka : Zambia Educational Publishing House


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