THE UNIVERSITY OF ZAMBIA SCHOOL OF EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (UNZASEDA)
ORIGINS
The University of Zambia School of Education Association (UNZASEDA) was officially established in 2008. It was an improved version of the University of Zambia Teachers Association (UNZATA) formed by a group of determined students from within the University of Zambia in the School of Education.
The fathers of UNZASEDA include M’zizi Kantini Samson who was also the president of UNZATA in 2007, Mwazi Oscar who was the vice president, Sitwe Benson Mkandawire who was the Secretary General, Mwale Chongo Eric who was the treasurer and Christine Mwanza saving as the publicity secretary.
When the executive of UNZATA wrote to the Dean’s Office of the School of Education suggesting that all students registered in the school of education should automatically become members of UNZATA, the Dean was pleased with this request but he requested that the association must have a blessing from all students in the school. That time, the school was finding ways and means to involve students in most of the school activities and this created a conducive environment for establishing the biggest and strongest association in the history of the University of Zambia.
Two weeks later on 4th November 2007, the Dean School of Education called all students in the school for a meeting to share this news with every student in the school. The meeting was held in NELT in the afternoon and in attendance was the Dean himself, Assistant deans one and two and the Assistant Registrar school of Education plus over 500 students, others were outside the hall due to limited space in NELT.
In this meeting, all students accepted to be members UNZATA but the name of the association had to be changed because it was restricted to teachers alone but we know very well that the school of education does not produce teachers alone but different kinds of professionals in the different available programmes.
After this meeting, UNZATA ceased to exist including its executive and the birth of UNZASEDA was recorded. The school constituted an interim executive constituting all members who were in UNZATA and two people from each one of the eight programmes of the school; i. e. two from; B. A. AED, BED, BALIS, AED, and others. This interim worked very hard until an executive was constituted headed by the same president of UNZATA Kantini Samson. In this interim executive, the former vice president of UNZATA Oscar Mwazi, Treasurer Eric Mwale and the Secretary General Sitwe Benson Mkandawire refused to stand for elections in the interim as they did not want UNZATA executive to take over UNZASEDA again but created reasons of their own for not standing. However, later, they accepted to be in the council where there was less controversial issues and Eric Mwale became the Chairperson of the council of representatives from all programmes. In fact the council that time was in charge of all programmes and UNZASEDA looked at the affairs of the school with the council reporting to them.
The whole lot of this process involved some Lectures and administrators and therefore at the end, UNZASEDA was fathered not by individuals but student masses and lecturers' both professional and unprofessional treatment of the learners under the general turbulent circumstances of the education system in Zambia. The student compact mass constituted those who researched into the sociology, policy and administration of education with special reference to Zambia. There emerged a cadre of young leaders who could connect theory to pratice. Among these, notable names include Imanga Malyande, Sitwe Mkandawire, Eric Mwale, Oscar Mwazi and Samson Kantini.
After a wide university stakeholder consultative process that this cadre had done, its recommendations coincided with a student general assembly that the administration of the School of Education called for. The conveners of this Assembly headed by Wanga Chakanika and others could not hesitate to mention that their offices were open for this noble cause.
Forthwith, departments of the school of education and those which derived 50+1% of their students from the school of education were charged to send student representatives to join what came to be known as the Triple C - Consultive Constitutional Committee (CCC) on the Formation of Student Professional Association. Chaired by a transparent and progressive strategic young thinker, triple C culminated into what is today known as UNZASEDA.
The birth of UNZASEDA was not without opposition from those who felt it was professionally about to once again build rational student activism and introduce student professionalism. But knowledge will always rule over ignorance. The opposition did not succeed. It was consolidated to become the first professional association with a large following in the history of UNZA. From its mandatory membership fees it developed a loan scheme to help students with financial difficulties. It also established and furnished an operating office within the University. For the first time it sent duly elected representatives by the represented to the School of Education board of studies. One of the biggest board that bring together affiliate institutions to the School of Education to deliberate issues of mutual concern with the University through the School of education. The first agenda of UNZASEDA also helped the school of education in collectively tackling the issues surrounding student teaching experience allowances and duration of the experience itself. The success of the Association in professionally facilitating dialogue to solve this problem helped it receive its first round of applause and standing ovation from its critics of the time, fourth years (2008/9).
By the time the first leadership was winding its short but difficult term of office, its strength was deepening and its concerts where well attended that the Ministry of Education offered a place to the Association through and under the facilitation of able School of Education Administration at the 2009 Mulungush Education Symposium.
The stance of UNZASEDA today may not be flourishing as earlier envisioned but surely, they are making good progress. It would only be bad if it starts joining ranks with old university student associations and unions that wait for executive elections and graduation parties. The INITIAL UNZASEDA was competing with UNZASU as they could come to borrow money from UNZASEDA. The situation now may not be clear, the institutional and national agenda of the association may not even be known today by some members including those who may be leading it.
The formalized first UNZASEDA executive included heroes of the freedom fight and civil rights movement including Kantini Samson chairperson, Mwape Sunday vice chairperson, Abigail Mbozi Secretary general, Bertha Masala treasurer, Martha kayuni publicity secretary, and those in the council executive included Benson Mkandawire, Eric Mwale Chongo, Oscar Mwazi, Chanda, Lungu and those whose contributions remain visible by the monumental existence of UNZASEDA.
UNZASEDA I know can make a difference at every level. It can still bridge that gap between students and management as they spearhead professionalism in the country.
Saturday, January 29, 2011
Friday, January 28, 2011
SITWE EFFECTS - by Sitwe Benson Mkandawire
THE SITWE EFFECTS
The ‘Sitwe Effects’ states that “whenever there is a presence of two admirable people of opposite sex or many admirable people of opposite sex, it’s just natural for them to look at each other with complete sexual intercourse in their minds. This natural attraction forces them to look back at each other and visualize more and more on how they would catharsize”.
The “Sitwe effect” is that feeling that there is something special where I am and I need to behave in a certain way. This control due to such an environment is done for a reason mostly that of attention from those that humbled you and thereby gaining respect and control of yourself.
It is called “Sitwe Effect” because the study was carried out in Sitwe area of Chama District of the eastern province of Zambia in the late 1998 and revitalized in 2010, now in the city specifically from Lusaka and the University of Zambia by a researcher named after the research area Sitwe Benson Mkandawire.
This conclusion was arrived at after a series of studies and observation from similar admirable people. In one of the studies, two participants falsely named Tamala female and Yona male of admirable ages met each other for the first time. They looked at each other completely suggestive and by-passed each other. Tamala and Yona both back at each other to catharsizes and visualize more on each other.
In another study, a man looked back but the Female pretended not to look back immediately probably due to coyness but after she moved away from him, she stopped turned pretending to be answering a phone call.
The ‘Sitwe Effects’ states that “whenever there is a presence of two admirable people of opposite sex or many admirable people of opposite sex, it’s just natural for them to look at each other with complete sexual intercourse in their minds. This natural attraction forces them to look back at each other and visualize more and more on how they would catharsize”.
The “Sitwe effect” is that feeling that there is something special where I am and I need to behave in a certain way. This control due to such an environment is done for a reason mostly that of attention from those that humbled you and thereby gaining respect and control of yourself.
It is called “Sitwe Effect” because the study was carried out in Sitwe area of Chama District of the eastern province of Zambia in the late 1998 and revitalized in 2010, now in the city specifically from Lusaka and the University of Zambia by a researcher named after the research area Sitwe Benson Mkandawire.
This conclusion was arrived at after a series of studies and observation from similar admirable people. In one of the studies, two participants falsely named Tamala female and Yona male of admirable ages met each other for the first time. They looked at each other completely suggestive and by-passed each other. Tamala and Yona both back at each other to catharsizes and visualize more on each other.
In another study, a man looked back but the Female pretended not to look back immediately probably due to coyness but after she moved away from him, she stopped turned pretending to be answering a phone call.
Thursday, January 27, 2011
MANDATORY PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION - ESSAY FORM
The concept ‘mandatory professional education’ refer to the type of education exposed learners of those programmes deemed to be professions like Doctors and Lawyers for them to work effectively and efficiently when they go to the world of work. This education programme is also extended to those already in the work fraternity but is expected to attend refresher courses in order to improve professionally in terms efficiency, effectiveness including some ethical considerations in their profession and this later education is called mandatory continuing professional education. The principle aim of this paper is to demonstrate the understanding of the term “Mandatory Professional Education” and analyze its application in one profession specifically law. The paper starts with a brief introduction and then proceeds to the main body before the conclusion is given.
Mandatory professional education prepares learners to become ethically considerate and become efficient and effective in their respective profession. For instance, in the legal fraternity, lawyers are trained before they go into the field to improve the administration of justice which in turn benefits the public interest. Regular participation in Continuing Legal Education programs enhances the professional skills of practicing lawyers, afford them periodic opportunities for professional self-evaluation and improve the quality of legal services rendered to the public. All active members of the Zambia’s Law Association specifically those to do with the Zambian State Bar are always urged to participate in an additional amount of further legal study throughout the period of their active practice of law, and failure to do so results in their suspension from membership in the Zambia’s State Bar.
Mandatory professional education in Zambia in the area of law is firstly portrayed at Zambian Institute of Advanced Legal Education (ZIALE) where all those who finished their law programmes are expected to go first before they can be admitted into the bar as practicing lawyers. Although it is part of their qualification, this education is also issued to those professionals already in the work fraternity but are expected to attend refresher courses in order to improve professionally in terms efficiency and effectiveness. However, it should be noted here that the concept of mandatory professional education (MPE) for professionals is controversial because at its heart are questions about the nature of professions and of adult education. Being a professional implies commitment to continuing one's education and the ability to pursue practice-enhancing learning. So there would seem to be no need for mandates. However, due to advances in knowledge and technology, as well as public demands for accountability and consumer protection, the number of states requiring professional education for many professions has significantly increased in different professions.
Mandatory continuing professional education is a recommendation for all practicing lawyers in Zambia so that they remain active and up to date with information and current legal activities. This requirement is not only in Zambia but also in other countries as well like Britain, China, USA and Canada. In other countries like the USA, they even have a Continuing Legal Education Board established for the purpose of administering the program. The Board have those general administrative and supervisory powers necessary to effectuate the purposes of this rule, including the power to adopt reasonable and necessary regulations consistent with this rule. For example, the Virginia State Bar have the responsibility for funding the Board and for enforcing Mandatory Continuing Legal Education requirements. Its duties and powers include: (a) To approve, on an individual basis, continuing legal education (CLE) programs and sponsors and publish a list of those approved. The publication include the number of credits earned for completion of a particular program; (b) To establish procedures for the approval of Continuing Legal Education courses, whether those courses are offered within the Commonwealth or elsewhere. These procedures should include the method by which CLE sponsors could make application to the Board for approval, and if necessary, make amendments to their application; (c) To authorize sponsors of Continuing Legal Education programs to advertise that participation in their program fulfills the CLE requirements of this Rule; (d) To formulate and distribute to all members of the Virginia State Bar appropriate information regarding the requirements of this Rule, including the distribution of a certification form to be filed annually by each active member.
Mandatory professional education learners are expected to possess a certain number of requirements as demanded in that particular profession. These requirements vary depending on the requirements of the different boards. For instance, in Zambia, an individual is expected to posses a degree in law from a reputable University recognized by the world for them to enter into this law profession with specific mandatory professional education. In Virginia, learners equally are expected to posses certain requirements as follows; (1) All active members of the Virginia State Bar shall annually complete and certify attendance at a minimum of twelve (12) credit hours of approved Continuing Legal Education courses of which at least two (2) hours shall be in the area of legal ethics or professionalism, except those lawyers expressly exempted from the requirement by this Rule or by decision of the Continuing Legal Education Board; provided, however, that for the specific period of time, active members shall complete and certify attendance at a minimum of fifteen (15) credit hours of approved Continuing Legal Education courses of which at least two (2) hours shall be in the area of legal ethics or professionalism, except those lawyers expressly exempted from the requirement by this rule or by decision of the Continuing Legal Education Board. Each active member shall complete the required Continuing Legal Education courses each year during a specific period of time. (2) In order to provide flexibility in fulfilling the annual requirement, a one year carryover of credit hours is permitted, so that accrued credit hours in excess of one year's requirement may be carried forward from one year to meet the requirement for the next year. A member may carry forward a maximum of twelve (12) credit hours, two (2) of which, if earned in legal ethics or professionalism, may be counted toward the two (2) hours required in legal ethics or professionalism and finally (3) Each active member of the Virginia State Bar is responsible for ascertaining whether or not a particular course satisfies the requirements of this Rule. Each member should exercise discretion in choosing those approved programs which are most likely to enhance professional skills and improve delivery of legal services.
Although mandatory professional education is said to have a lot of advantages as far preparation of professionals are concerned, there is a strong debate about it strength and weaknesses as discussed by Sandra Kerka (2008:2) who says that the following are the chief arguments of those opposed to MPE as quoted in (Brockett and LeGrand 1992; Morrison 1992; Nelson 1988; Queeney and English 1994):
It violates adult learning principles, such as voluntary participation, the informal nature of adult education, and adult self-direction. It promotes uniformity by disregarding individual learning needs and styles. By definition, professionals are supposed to be autonomous, self-managed, and responsible for mastery of knowledge; MPE and MCE is punitive to those who participate voluntarily. Evidence that it results in improved practice is lacking. All that is mandated is attendance, which will not necessarily change attitudes, motivation, determination to practice responsibly, or ability to learn. Programs are not consistently and uniformly available. Many lack quality and relevance to practitioner needs. MCE may encourage providers to focus on profit. Requiring participation may hinder learning by reducing motivation and individual responsibility. Professionals should be accountable for effective performance, not participation.
Although these scholars are against this kind of education, there are also other proponents who support MPCE for the following reasons (Brockett and LeGrand 1992; Little 1993; Nelson 1988; Queeney and English 1994; Queeney, Smutz, and Shuman 1990):
Expecting voluntary participation is unrealistic. Those who need it most may be least likely to participate. There is some evidence that well-designed programs can influence effective practice. MCE can provide equal access to a range of opportunities. Mandates are necessary to protect the public from incompetent or out-of-date practitioners. Although imperfect, it is better than such alternatives as examination or practice review. By choosing a profession, professionals submit to its norms. A license to practice implies consent to be governed by the rules of the profession.
It is clear that these arguments are very strong. However, although some studies have found negative attitudes among those required to participate, Queeney, Smutz, and Shuman (1990) suggest that MCE participants may judge their participation more thoughtfully and critically because it is required; they expect high quality and applicability and become more astute consumers of learning opportunities. Some feel that the mandatory debate is a dead issue (Brockett and LeGrand 1992; Nelson 1988; Queeney and English 1994). Rather than arguing about whether professional continuing education should be mandatory, the focus should be on improving the content and delivery of CPE. However, the "content of CPE courses is often based on precedent or what the providers think is worthwhile, rather than any systematic analysis of what constitutes competent current practice of the profession" (Hager and Gonczi 1991, p. 24). Some consider competency-based standards the solution. This aspect can be very seriously and sometimes quiet misleading. There is need to address such mandatory professional educations world and Zambia in particular.
Providers of mandatory professional education should bare in mind both the prons and cons of this kind of education and focuss on ways of improving this kind of education. However, rather than debating the mandatory issue or arguing whether competency standards are appropriate for professionals, "a preferable alternative might be to focus on alleviating the problems associated with continuing professional education as a tool for improving professional practice" (Queeney and English 1994 :16). Some of the problems are as follows (Cervero et al. 1990): multiplicity of providers; lack of standards; and dissention about who should pay, who should determine the level and frequency of participation, and what type of activity should count as continuing education.
Effective CPE should be accessible, affordable, and of high standards. It is difficult to balance quality considerations with the need to keep costs reasonable, serve large numbers, and address continual updating needs in many specializations. Collaboration among providers is recommended. CPE should be relevant to individual learning needs, applicable to practice, and designed for different learning styles. Professionals in organizational settings should receive support for transferring learning to practice, and interstate mobility of MCE credentials should be established.
The argument is that CPE should be rooted in and viewed as an extension of professional education. Competence evolves over time, and effective learning is a long-term, cumulative, integrated process (Cervero et al. 1990; Queeney and English 1994). CPE should be viewed as part of the lifelong learning continuum, and development of a mindset toward continuing education should begin prior to practice. This requires a systematic approach to developing a strategic lifelong learning agenda that is holistic (taking into account the multiple cultural influences on practice). Currently rare, educational counseling services for professionals are needed.
Sandra Kerka (2008:6) further says CPE should link practitioner competence to the ideals of public service and accountability by (1) stressing the value judgments and ethical considerations in practice, (2) developing competence and expertise in conjunction with understanding of the human purposes of professional service, and (3) promoting cooperation, interdependence, and collaboration as additional ways to improve competence (Cervero et al. 1990). Nelson (1988) warns that MCE should not be oversold as a solution. Associations for professions in which continuing education is mandatory should promote the values of CPE to their members while acknowledging to the public the limitations and difficulties of certifying competence and of documenting MCE's effects on practice. A most important factor in overcoming objections to mandated education is consideration of the professional as an adult learner. Program design and delivery should emphasize consultation and cooperation, not coercion (Nelson 1988). Professionals can be given broad latitude in the selection and design of their individual learning programs (Brockett and LeGrand 1992), especially if standards against which to compare them have been established. Cervero et al. (1990) give the following description of professionals as learners: "professionals construct an understanding of current situations of practice using a repertoire of practical knowledge acquired primarily through experience in prior 'real life' situations" (p. 178). CPE must foster both practical knowledge or know-how as well as critical reflection.
It can be concluded that mandatory professional education has to do with training learners by imparting all skills needed in a certain or particular profession like administration, how to treat clients, ethical considerations, understanding the operations of the system, efficiency and effectiveness as discussed in the paper. Although in some professions MCE has become the norm, its mandatory nature should not be the focus. "One answer to the mandatory continuing education conundrum may be not the mandatory or voluntary nature of continuing education, but the transformation of professionals into motivated seekers of education and this is what it should be in all mandatory professional education.
REFERENCES
Brockett, R. G., and LeGrand, B. F. "Part Five: Should Continuing Education Be Mandatory?" NEW DIRECTIONS FOR ADULT AND CONTINUING EDUCATION no. 54 (Summer 1992): 85-103. (EJ 449 593)
Davison, T. "Competency-Based Training & Competency-Based Assessment." Paper presented at the Queensland (Australia) Training Officer Society Conference, May 1994.
Hager, P., and Gonczi, A. "Competency-Based Standards: A Boon for Continuing Professional Education?" STUDIES IN CONTINUING EDUCATION 13, no. 1 (1991): 24-40. (EJ 440 649)
Kerka, S. (2008) Mandatory Professional Continuing education . Circulatory Article.
Nelson, J. W. "Design and Delivery of Programs under Mandatory Continuing Professional Education." STUDIES IN CONTINUING EDUCATION 10, no. 2 (1988): 81-103. (EJ 384 843)
Queeney, D. S., and English, J. K. MANDATORY CONTINUING EDUCATION: A STATUS REPORT. Columbus: ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult, Career, and Vocational Education, Center on Education and Training for Employment, The Ohio State University, 1994.
Mandatory professional education prepares learners to become ethically considerate and become efficient and effective in their respective profession. For instance, in the legal fraternity, lawyers are trained before they go into the field to improve the administration of justice which in turn benefits the public interest. Regular participation in Continuing Legal Education programs enhances the professional skills of practicing lawyers, afford them periodic opportunities for professional self-evaluation and improve the quality of legal services rendered to the public. All active members of the Zambia’s Law Association specifically those to do with the Zambian State Bar are always urged to participate in an additional amount of further legal study throughout the period of their active practice of law, and failure to do so results in their suspension from membership in the Zambia’s State Bar.
Mandatory professional education in Zambia in the area of law is firstly portrayed at Zambian Institute of Advanced Legal Education (ZIALE) where all those who finished their law programmes are expected to go first before they can be admitted into the bar as practicing lawyers. Although it is part of their qualification, this education is also issued to those professionals already in the work fraternity but are expected to attend refresher courses in order to improve professionally in terms efficiency and effectiveness. However, it should be noted here that the concept of mandatory professional education (MPE) for professionals is controversial because at its heart are questions about the nature of professions and of adult education. Being a professional implies commitment to continuing one's education and the ability to pursue practice-enhancing learning. So there would seem to be no need for mandates. However, due to advances in knowledge and technology, as well as public demands for accountability and consumer protection, the number of states requiring professional education for many professions has significantly increased in different professions.
Mandatory continuing professional education is a recommendation for all practicing lawyers in Zambia so that they remain active and up to date with information and current legal activities. This requirement is not only in Zambia but also in other countries as well like Britain, China, USA and Canada. In other countries like the USA, they even have a Continuing Legal Education Board established for the purpose of administering the program. The Board have those general administrative and supervisory powers necessary to effectuate the purposes of this rule, including the power to adopt reasonable and necessary regulations consistent with this rule. For example, the Virginia State Bar have the responsibility for funding the Board and for enforcing Mandatory Continuing Legal Education requirements. Its duties and powers include: (a) To approve, on an individual basis, continuing legal education (CLE) programs and sponsors and publish a list of those approved. The publication include the number of credits earned for completion of a particular program; (b) To establish procedures for the approval of Continuing Legal Education courses, whether those courses are offered within the Commonwealth or elsewhere. These procedures should include the method by which CLE sponsors could make application to the Board for approval, and if necessary, make amendments to their application; (c) To authorize sponsors of Continuing Legal Education programs to advertise that participation in their program fulfills the CLE requirements of this Rule; (d) To formulate and distribute to all members of the Virginia State Bar appropriate information regarding the requirements of this Rule, including the distribution of a certification form to be filed annually by each active member.
Mandatory professional education learners are expected to possess a certain number of requirements as demanded in that particular profession. These requirements vary depending on the requirements of the different boards. For instance, in Zambia, an individual is expected to posses a degree in law from a reputable University recognized by the world for them to enter into this law profession with specific mandatory professional education. In Virginia, learners equally are expected to posses certain requirements as follows; (1) All active members of the Virginia State Bar shall annually complete and certify attendance at a minimum of twelve (12) credit hours of approved Continuing Legal Education courses of which at least two (2) hours shall be in the area of legal ethics or professionalism, except those lawyers expressly exempted from the requirement by this Rule or by decision of the Continuing Legal Education Board; provided, however, that for the specific period of time, active members shall complete and certify attendance at a minimum of fifteen (15) credit hours of approved Continuing Legal Education courses of which at least two (2) hours shall be in the area of legal ethics or professionalism, except those lawyers expressly exempted from the requirement by this rule or by decision of the Continuing Legal Education Board. Each active member shall complete the required Continuing Legal Education courses each year during a specific period of time. (2) In order to provide flexibility in fulfilling the annual requirement, a one year carryover of credit hours is permitted, so that accrued credit hours in excess of one year's requirement may be carried forward from one year to meet the requirement for the next year. A member may carry forward a maximum of twelve (12) credit hours, two (2) of which, if earned in legal ethics or professionalism, may be counted toward the two (2) hours required in legal ethics or professionalism and finally (3) Each active member of the Virginia State Bar is responsible for ascertaining whether or not a particular course satisfies the requirements of this Rule. Each member should exercise discretion in choosing those approved programs which are most likely to enhance professional skills and improve delivery of legal services.
Although mandatory professional education is said to have a lot of advantages as far preparation of professionals are concerned, there is a strong debate about it strength and weaknesses as discussed by Sandra Kerka (2008:2) who says that the following are the chief arguments of those opposed to MPE as quoted in (Brockett and LeGrand 1992; Morrison 1992; Nelson 1988; Queeney and English 1994):
It violates adult learning principles, such as voluntary participation, the informal nature of adult education, and adult self-direction. It promotes uniformity by disregarding individual learning needs and styles. By definition, professionals are supposed to be autonomous, self-managed, and responsible for mastery of knowledge; MPE and MCE is punitive to those who participate voluntarily. Evidence that it results in improved practice is lacking. All that is mandated is attendance, which will not necessarily change attitudes, motivation, determination to practice responsibly, or ability to learn. Programs are not consistently and uniformly available. Many lack quality and relevance to practitioner needs. MCE may encourage providers to focus on profit. Requiring participation may hinder learning by reducing motivation and individual responsibility. Professionals should be accountable for effective performance, not participation.
Although these scholars are against this kind of education, there are also other proponents who support MPCE for the following reasons (Brockett and LeGrand 1992; Little 1993; Nelson 1988; Queeney and English 1994; Queeney, Smutz, and Shuman 1990):
Expecting voluntary participation is unrealistic. Those who need it most may be least likely to participate. There is some evidence that well-designed programs can influence effective practice. MCE can provide equal access to a range of opportunities. Mandates are necessary to protect the public from incompetent or out-of-date practitioners. Although imperfect, it is better than such alternatives as examination or practice review. By choosing a profession, professionals submit to its norms. A license to practice implies consent to be governed by the rules of the profession.
It is clear that these arguments are very strong. However, although some studies have found negative attitudes among those required to participate, Queeney, Smutz, and Shuman (1990) suggest that MCE participants may judge their participation more thoughtfully and critically because it is required; they expect high quality and applicability and become more astute consumers of learning opportunities. Some feel that the mandatory debate is a dead issue (Brockett and LeGrand 1992; Nelson 1988; Queeney and English 1994). Rather than arguing about whether professional continuing education should be mandatory, the focus should be on improving the content and delivery of CPE. However, the "content of CPE courses is often based on precedent or what the providers think is worthwhile, rather than any systematic analysis of what constitutes competent current practice of the profession" (Hager and Gonczi 1991, p. 24). Some consider competency-based standards the solution. This aspect can be very seriously and sometimes quiet misleading. There is need to address such mandatory professional educations world and Zambia in particular.
Providers of mandatory professional education should bare in mind both the prons and cons of this kind of education and focuss on ways of improving this kind of education. However, rather than debating the mandatory issue or arguing whether competency standards are appropriate for professionals, "a preferable alternative might be to focus on alleviating the problems associated with continuing professional education as a tool for improving professional practice" (Queeney and English 1994 :16). Some of the problems are as follows (Cervero et al. 1990): multiplicity of providers; lack of standards; and dissention about who should pay, who should determine the level and frequency of participation, and what type of activity should count as continuing education.
Effective CPE should be accessible, affordable, and of high standards. It is difficult to balance quality considerations with the need to keep costs reasonable, serve large numbers, and address continual updating needs in many specializations. Collaboration among providers is recommended. CPE should be relevant to individual learning needs, applicable to practice, and designed for different learning styles. Professionals in organizational settings should receive support for transferring learning to practice, and interstate mobility of MCE credentials should be established.
The argument is that CPE should be rooted in and viewed as an extension of professional education. Competence evolves over time, and effective learning is a long-term, cumulative, integrated process (Cervero et al. 1990; Queeney and English 1994). CPE should be viewed as part of the lifelong learning continuum, and development of a mindset toward continuing education should begin prior to practice. This requires a systematic approach to developing a strategic lifelong learning agenda that is holistic (taking into account the multiple cultural influences on practice). Currently rare, educational counseling services for professionals are needed.
Sandra Kerka (2008:6) further says CPE should link practitioner competence to the ideals of public service and accountability by (1) stressing the value judgments and ethical considerations in practice, (2) developing competence and expertise in conjunction with understanding of the human purposes of professional service, and (3) promoting cooperation, interdependence, and collaboration as additional ways to improve competence (Cervero et al. 1990). Nelson (1988) warns that MCE should not be oversold as a solution. Associations for professions in which continuing education is mandatory should promote the values of CPE to their members while acknowledging to the public the limitations and difficulties of certifying competence and of documenting MCE's effects on practice. A most important factor in overcoming objections to mandated education is consideration of the professional as an adult learner. Program design and delivery should emphasize consultation and cooperation, not coercion (Nelson 1988). Professionals can be given broad latitude in the selection and design of their individual learning programs (Brockett and LeGrand 1992), especially if standards against which to compare them have been established. Cervero et al. (1990) give the following description of professionals as learners: "professionals construct an understanding of current situations of practice using a repertoire of practical knowledge acquired primarily through experience in prior 'real life' situations" (p. 178). CPE must foster both practical knowledge or know-how as well as critical reflection.
It can be concluded that mandatory professional education has to do with training learners by imparting all skills needed in a certain or particular profession like administration, how to treat clients, ethical considerations, understanding the operations of the system, efficiency and effectiveness as discussed in the paper. Although in some professions MCE has become the norm, its mandatory nature should not be the focus. "One answer to the mandatory continuing education conundrum may be not the mandatory or voluntary nature of continuing education, but the transformation of professionals into motivated seekers of education and this is what it should be in all mandatory professional education.
REFERENCES
Brockett, R. G., and LeGrand, B. F. "Part Five: Should Continuing Education Be Mandatory?" NEW DIRECTIONS FOR ADULT AND CONTINUING EDUCATION no. 54 (Summer 1992): 85-103. (EJ 449 593)
Davison, T. "Competency-Based Training & Competency-Based Assessment." Paper presented at the Queensland (Australia) Training Officer Society Conference, May 1994.
Hager, P., and Gonczi, A. "Competency-Based Standards: A Boon for Continuing Professional Education?" STUDIES IN CONTINUING EDUCATION 13, no. 1 (1991): 24-40. (EJ 440 649)
Kerka, S. (2008) Mandatory Professional Continuing education . Circulatory Article.
Nelson, J. W. "Design and Delivery of Programs under Mandatory Continuing Professional Education." STUDIES IN CONTINUING EDUCATION 10, no. 2 (1988): 81-103. (EJ 384 843)
Queeney, D. S., and English, J. K. MANDATORY CONTINUING EDUCATION: A STATUS REPORT. Columbus: ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult, Career, and Vocational Education, Center on Education and Training for Employment, The Ohio State University, 1994.
SITWE EFFECTS
THE SITWE EFFECTS
The ‘Sitwe Effects’ states that “whenever there is a presence of two admirable people of opposite sex or many admirable people of opposite sex, it’s just natural for them to look at each other with complete sexual intercourse in their minds. This natural attraction forces them to look back at each other and visualize more and more on how they would catharsize”.
The “Sitwe effect” is that feeling that there is something special where I am and I need to behave in a certain way. This control due to such an environment is done for a reason mostly that of attention from those that humbled you and thereby gaining respect and control of yourself.
It is called “Sitwe Effect” because the study was carried out in Sitwe area of Chama District of the eastern province of Zambia in the late 1998 and revitalized in 2010, now in the city specifically from Lusaka and the University of Zambia by a researcher named after the research area Sitwe Benson Mkandawire.
This conclusion was arrived at after a series of studies and observation from similar admirable people. In one of the studies, two participants falsely named Tamala female and Yona male of admirable ages met each other for the first time. They looked at each other completely suggestive and by-passed each other. Tamala and Yona both back at each other to catharsizes and visualize more on each other.
In another study, a man looked back but the Female pretended not to look back immediately probably due to coyness but after she moved away from him, she stopped turned pretending to be answering a phone call.
The ‘Sitwe Effects’ states that “whenever there is a presence of two admirable people of opposite sex or many admirable people of opposite sex, it’s just natural for them to look at each other with complete sexual intercourse in their minds. This natural attraction forces them to look back at each other and visualize more and more on how they would catharsize”.
The “Sitwe effect” is that feeling that there is something special where I am and I need to behave in a certain way. This control due to such an environment is done for a reason mostly that of attention from those that humbled you and thereby gaining respect and control of yourself.
It is called “Sitwe Effect” because the study was carried out in Sitwe area of Chama District of the eastern province of Zambia in the late 1998 and revitalized in 2010, now in the city specifically from Lusaka and the University of Zambia by a researcher named after the research area Sitwe Benson Mkandawire.
This conclusion was arrived at after a series of studies and observation from similar admirable people. In one of the studies, two participants falsely named Tamala female and Yona male of admirable ages met each other for the first time. They looked at each other completely suggestive and by-passed each other. Tamala and Yona both back at each other to catharsizes and visualize more on each other.
In another study, a man looked back but the Female pretended not to look back immediately probably due to coyness but after she moved away from him, she stopped turned pretending to be answering a phone call.
Saturday, January 8, 2011
Selecting comprehension passage for teaching
1. Select a suitable passage of about 200 words that can be used for intensive reading at grade ten level. Then construct the following questions to test the learner’s understanding of the passage.
(i) Three multiple choice questions
(ii) Two free response questions
(iii) One question with five true or false statements
2. Explain how reading comprehension relates to the teaching and learning of summary, vocabulary, composition writing and grammar. Illustrate your answer using the comprehension passage you have selected in question one
SELECTION OF INTENSIVE READING PASSAGE: A CASE FOR GRADE TEN LEVEL AND HOW READING COMPREHENSION PASSAGE RELATES TO TEACHING AND LEARNING OF SUMMARY, VOCABULARY, COMPOSITION WRITING AND GRAMMAR.
13.0 GENERAL INTRODUCTION
Selecting a suitable passage to teach any grade is an intricate task which calls for serious commitment and considerations by the teacher. Much attention has to be paid to length of the passage, intellectual and lexical level of the class, structural level of the text, subject matter being handled and the cultural appropriateness. Having looked at that, a comprehensible passage can be constructed for a class and such a passage can be used to teach structural and linguistic units such as summary, vocabulary, composition writing and grammar.
Intensive reading is the kind of reading for both denotative and connotative meanings. It is reading for exactly and implied meaning. It calls for intellectual understanding of the learners so that they get the full meaning of the passage. “Intensive reading (study reading) is reading for the purpose of intellectual understanding, knowledge, evaluation and interpretation” (Lungu 2006).
14.0 DEVELOPING A LANGUAGE
It is evident that every Language is developing time and again. New words are being created while old words are fading out. An important aspect of the general characteristic of language is openness, which argues that all languages are in a continuous process of getting new words and shunning old ones. This development emerges from the people’s cultural context trying to meet the challenges in the new world with some technological advancement. There is a close relationship between language and culture. Conveniently, there is mutual respect between the two terms. The culture of the people is perpetuated from generation to generation through language and language is a vehicle for culture.
However, when developing a language, linguists cannot run away from neologism. When George met this term for the first time, he thought it meant “laughing loud” but later, it was clearly understood to mean three things; creating a new meaning in new form of a word through invention and borrowing, creating a new meaning in old form of a word through Derivation, compounding and backformation and having the old meaning of a word in new form through acronyms and blending.
2.1.0 ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS FROM THE PASSAGE
2.1.1 The three Multiple choice questions.
(i) From paragraph one, what feature of language make it easy to allow new words.
(a) Characteristic
(b) Shunning
(c) Closeness
(d) Openness
(e) Fading
(ii) According to George in paragraph two, the word neologism initially meant.
(a) Creating new words
(b) Three things
(c) Laughing loud
(d) Invention and borrowing
(e) Loan word
(iii) Which word in the passage means the same as ‘the way people live?’
(a) Neologism
(b) Derivation
(c) Blending
(d) Stability
(e) Culture
2.1.2 Two free response questions
(i) In your view, how can you develop your language? (Write half a page)
(ii) Do you think there is any relationship between language and culture? Explain.
2.1.3 One question with five true or false statements.
Write True or False in each of the following statements according to the passage.
(i) It is not impossible to develop a language.
(ii) Neologism as it is used today does not mean laughing.
(iii) Invention and borrowing creates new meaning in new form.
(iv) Blending involves creating new meaning in old form.
(v) Developing a language does not involve neologism processes.
15.0 QUESTION TWO
3.1 How a reading comprehension relates to the teaching and learning of summary.
Summary is a brief account of a book, a talk or any piece of discourse. A reading comprehension relates to the teaching and learning of summary in the sense that a teacher cannot ask learners to write a summary of a passage which they do not understand. The teacher must first teach the learners how to extract relevant information from the passage so that learners can express themselves clearly and consciously in their own words. Learners must first understand the reading passage and how information is packaged before summarising the reading passage. When pupils have understood the passage clearly, they can easily select important points, put them in note form and later blend them to a draft stage, editing stage, proof reading stage up to publication stage as summary. The teaching of summary writing from a passage is as good as teaching composition writing because they both involve same skills of writing such as note-taking, drafting, proof reading including the discussion, practice and production at the end. This is how a reading comprehension relates to the teaching of summary.
3.2 How a reading comprehension relates to the teaching and learning of composition writing.
A reading comprehension relates to the teaching and learning of composition writing in the sense that learners will need to firstly understand the subject area they are dealing with. The free response questions in (2.1.2) from the passage require that learners fully understand what is in the passage. They have to carefully and logically think on how to package their information clearly so that there is coherence. A teacher can only ask pupils to write a composition from the passage if he or she has discussed the passage with the class and convinced that the class have understood and practiced it and finally he can demand for production from the class. However, the learners after discussion read the passage more slowly for understanding of what has just been taught. Here a teacher may select a good number of words from the passage for pupils to use in their composition and in this way, learners are also learning Vocabulary.
3.3 How a reading comprehension relates to the teaching and learning of vocabulary.
Vocabulary refers to the user’s knowledge of words. A teacher can teach vocabulary by asking learners to contextualise words as they have been used in the text passage. The teacher must concentrate on the meaning conveyed in the passage and not the dictionary meaning it is important that the learners know the parts of speech to which a particular word belong. Developing students an learn a good number of unknown words from the passage by consulting the teacher or dictionary at times. Teaching and learning based on the context is the best approach of teaching linguistic units as Wallace (1982) stated that;
After several years of teaching, I have found that enabling students to derive meaning with the help of context clues is an effective approach to increase vocabulary and reading comprehension.
The best way to discover meaning of new words is guessing vocabulary from the context of the passage. This can be done by drawing inferences from our intuition.
3.4 How reading comprehension relates to the teaching and learning of grammar
Grammar in the traditional sense is a branch of linguistics which deals with syntax and morphology. Grammar is closely related to vocabulary in the sense that their grammatical patterns as derived from the passage can help the reader guess the meaning of words from the text. This suggests that a word can be both a grammatical item or vocabulary item. This relationship is seen by the interdependence of grammatical and lexical cohesion which support each other in a typical context.
4.0 Conclusion
This paper can be concluded in two fold; Cognitive closure and social closure.
4.1 Cognitive closure
The paper have provided a reading passage for grade tens with respect to the question. It has constructed the different questions in line with the instructions and finally the paper has explained how a reading comprehension passage can be used for the teaching and learning of the various linguistic units and structures in a language.
4.2 Social Closure
It is observed from the paper that, there is a close relationship between a reading comprehension passage and other units in the question. In the same vain, other units like Vocabulary and grammar are intertwined to some extent that they can hardly be separated in the same word.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
British Council Teachers. 1980. Six aspects of Vocabulary teaching. RELC Journal Supplement Guidelines, 3, pp. 83–85.
Gairns, R., and S. Redman. 1986. Working with words: A guide to teaching and learning Vocabulary. Melbourne: Cambridge University Press.
Halliday, M. A. K., and R. Hasan. 1976. Cohesion in English. London: Longman.
Nunan, D. 1991. Language teaching methodology. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Wallace, M. 1982. Teaching Vocabulary. London: Heinemann Educational
Books.
http://sitwe.wordpress.com/, http://sitwe.blog.com/, http://bmsitwe.blog.com
(i) Three multiple choice questions
(ii) Two free response questions
(iii) One question with five true or false statements
2. Explain how reading comprehension relates to the teaching and learning of summary, vocabulary, composition writing and grammar. Illustrate your answer using the comprehension passage you have selected in question one
SELECTION OF INTENSIVE READING PASSAGE: A CASE FOR GRADE TEN LEVEL AND HOW READING COMPREHENSION PASSAGE RELATES TO TEACHING AND LEARNING OF SUMMARY, VOCABULARY, COMPOSITION WRITING AND GRAMMAR.
13.0 GENERAL INTRODUCTION
Selecting a suitable passage to teach any grade is an intricate task which calls for serious commitment and considerations by the teacher. Much attention has to be paid to length of the passage, intellectual and lexical level of the class, structural level of the text, subject matter being handled and the cultural appropriateness. Having looked at that, a comprehensible passage can be constructed for a class and such a passage can be used to teach structural and linguistic units such as summary, vocabulary, composition writing and grammar.
Intensive reading is the kind of reading for both denotative and connotative meanings. It is reading for exactly and implied meaning. It calls for intellectual understanding of the learners so that they get the full meaning of the passage. “Intensive reading (study reading) is reading for the purpose of intellectual understanding, knowledge, evaluation and interpretation” (Lungu 2006).
14.0 DEVELOPING A LANGUAGE
It is evident that every Language is developing time and again. New words are being created while old words are fading out. An important aspect of the general characteristic of language is openness, which argues that all languages are in a continuous process of getting new words and shunning old ones. This development emerges from the people’s cultural context trying to meet the challenges in the new world with some technological advancement. There is a close relationship between language and culture. Conveniently, there is mutual respect between the two terms. The culture of the people is perpetuated from generation to generation through language and language is a vehicle for culture.
However, when developing a language, linguists cannot run away from neologism. When George met this term for the first time, he thought it meant “laughing loud” but later, it was clearly understood to mean three things; creating a new meaning in new form of a word through invention and borrowing, creating a new meaning in old form of a word through Derivation, compounding and backformation and having the old meaning of a word in new form through acronyms and blending.
2.1.0 ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS FROM THE PASSAGE
2.1.1 The three Multiple choice questions.
(i) From paragraph one, what feature of language make it easy to allow new words.
(a) Characteristic
(b) Shunning
(c) Closeness
(d) Openness
(e) Fading
(ii) According to George in paragraph two, the word neologism initially meant.
(a) Creating new words
(b) Three things
(c) Laughing loud
(d) Invention and borrowing
(e) Loan word
(iii) Which word in the passage means the same as ‘the way people live?’
(a) Neologism
(b) Derivation
(c) Blending
(d) Stability
(e) Culture
2.1.2 Two free response questions
(i) In your view, how can you develop your language? (Write half a page)
(ii) Do you think there is any relationship between language and culture? Explain.
2.1.3 One question with five true or false statements.
Write True or False in each of the following statements according to the passage.
(i) It is not impossible to develop a language.
(ii) Neologism as it is used today does not mean laughing.
(iii) Invention and borrowing creates new meaning in new form.
(iv) Blending involves creating new meaning in old form.
(v) Developing a language does not involve neologism processes.
15.0 QUESTION TWO
3.1 How a reading comprehension relates to the teaching and learning of summary.
Summary is a brief account of a book, a talk or any piece of discourse. A reading comprehension relates to the teaching and learning of summary in the sense that a teacher cannot ask learners to write a summary of a passage which they do not understand. The teacher must first teach the learners how to extract relevant information from the passage so that learners can express themselves clearly and consciously in their own words. Learners must first understand the reading passage and how information is packaged before summarising the reading passage. When pupils have understood the passage clearly, they can easily select important points, put them in note form and later blend them to a draft stage, editing stage, proof reading stage up to publication stage as summary. The teaching of summary writing from a passage is as good as teaching composition writing because they both involve same skills of writing such as note-taking, drafting, proof reading including the discussion, practice and production at the end. This is how a reading comprehension relates to the teaching of summary.
3.2 How a reading comprehension relates to the teaching and learning of composition writing.
A reading comprehension relates to the teaching and learning of composition writing in the sense that learners will need to firstly understand the subject area they are dealing with. The free response questions in (2.1.2) from the passage require that learners fully understand what is in the passage. They have to carefully and logically think on how to package their information clearly so that there is coherence. A teacher can only ask pupils to write a composition from the passage if he or she has discussed the passage with the class and convinced that the class have understood and practiced it and finally he can demand for production from the class. However, the learners after discussion read the passage more slowly for understanding of what has just been taught. Here a teacher may select a good number of words from the passage for pupils to use in their composition and in this way, learners are also learning Vocabulary.
3.3 How a reading comprehension relates to the teaching and learning of vocabulary.
Vocabulary refers to the user’s knowledge of words. A teacher can teach vocabulary by asking learners to contextualise words as they have been used in the text passage. The teacher must concentrate on the meaning conveyed in the passage and not the dictionary meaning it is important that the learners know the parts of speech to which a particular word belong. Developing students an learn a good number of unknown words from the passage by consulting the teacher or dictionary at times. Teaching and learning based on the context is the best approach of teaching linguistic units as Wallace (1982) stated that;
After several years of teaching, I have found that enabling students to derive meaning with the help of context clues is an effective approach to increase vocabulary and reading comprehension.
The best way to discover meaning of new words is guessing vocabulary from the context of the passage. This can be done by drawing inferences from our intuition.
3.4 How reading comprehension relates to the teaching and learning of grammar
Grammar in the traditional sense is a branch of linguistics which deals with syntax and morphology. Grammar is closely related to vocabulary in the sense that their grammatical patterns as derived from the passage can help the reader guess the meaning of words from the text. This suggests that a word can be both a grammatical item or vocabulary item. This relationship is seen by the interdependence of grammatical and lexical cohesion which support each other in a typical context.
4.0 Conclusion
This paper can be concluded in two fold; Cognitive closure and social closure.
4.1 Cognitive closure
The paper have provided a reading passage for grade tens with respect to the question. It has constructed the different questions in line with the instructions and finally the paper has explained how a reading comprehension passage can be used for the teaching and learning of the various linguistic units and structures in a language.
4.2 Social Closure
It is observed from the paper that, there is a close relationship between a reading comprehension passage and other units in the question. In the same vain, other units like Vocabulary and grammar are intertwined to some extent that they can hardly be separated in the same word.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
British Council Teachers. 1980. Six aspects of Vocabulary teaching. RELC Journal Supplement Guidelines, 3, pp. 83–85.
Gairns, R., and S. Redman. 1986. Working with words: A guide to teaching and learning Vocabulary. Melbourne: Cambridge University Press.
Halliday, M. A. K., and R. Hasan. 1976. Cohesion in English. London: Longman.
Nunan, D. 1991. Language teaching methodology. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Wallace, M. 1982. Teaching Vocabulary. London: Heinemann Educational
Books.
http://sitwe.wordpress.com/, http://sitwe.blog.com/, http://bmsitwe.blog.com
How to improve education system
A country without a well structured educational system is doomed because education is the key to any form of development in a country. Every human being whether young or adult has received some sort of education but the question is what sort of education is being talked about? There are so many educational systems. For instance there is a kind of education system which was brought by the missionaries to Africans. This kind of education system is hierarchically structured from lowest to highest levels (Pre-school to university) and there is a kind of education system for African called the indigenous education system. Although there are some similarities between the two educational systems, there are also many differences. Nevertheless, the aim of this paper is to suggest means on how one would improve the hierarchically structured educational system in the case of Zambia if he or she was to take up the role of the ministry of education or the permanent secretary.
Without any reasonable doubts, the term education has been defined by so many people in academic circles. Each of them defines the term in a different way. For instance, some scholar define education as an action exercised by the adult generation on those who are not yet ready for social life. According to UNESCO, Education is an organized and sustained communication process designed to bring about learning. Snelson (1974:1) defines education as
A condition of human survival. It is the means where by one generation transmits the wisdom, knowledge and experience which prepares the next generation for life’s duties and pleasure.
For one to embark on a project of improving the educational system in the case of Zambia , there is need for them to firstly understand what is already on the ground and basically find out what is missing or which areas needs improvements. If the author of this paper assumes the role of the ministry of education or permanent secretary in Zambia today, there are first priority things which need urgent attention in every respect.
Firstly, most schools in Zambia today have poor infrastructure from elementary level to tertiary level. At lower levels, there is even educational inequality between the rural and urban schools. The infrastructure and furniture especially for those in rural areas is extremely poor. Children are even sitting down on the ground in a grass thatched houses instead of having well established buildings and good furniture for conducive environment for learning. Being in such offices, infrastructure would be the first thing to worked on in both rural and urban schools.
Secondly, education is nothing without learning resources. The author would also work on resources for the education system. Procurement of books, maps, rulers, chalk and other learning resources would also increase.
A very straight-forward way is available to quickly and effectively improve American public schools. It is not expensive, and may even be less expensive than existing standard efforts. It involves operation of three physically separate parallel schools in a District. Attendance at specific schools would not depend on academic ability or knowledge, but on each individual student's social compatibility. Absolutely no discrimination exists because each student has the choice available to attend any of them.
At individual pupil level, there should be more focus on individual progress than on test scores. Test scores are not the only way of seeing how much a student understands and how intelligent are they. I believe more challenging courses should be provided for increased mental stimulation because if students had more challenging work, it would force them to work harder in order to pass.
Teachers should be payed more but there should also be higher standards in order to become a teacher because teachers have very important jobs. It is up to them to encourage and teach us so that we reach the peak of our potential.
Parental involvement is necessary. It is up to parents to make sure their children understand the value of a good education. Too often parents do not stress the importance of education and no wonder their children don't perform to the best of their abilities.
Curriculm revision would have to happen. Too often children are passed on to higher grade levels without learning the skills they need and so more time has to be dedicated towards reteaching skills that should've been learned.
Finally, stricter standards in order to pass to the next grade level should be set up. I believe 70% should be the lowest percentage a person could receive in order to pass and if the pupil receives grades lower than C minus in math and Language Arts, he or she should have to go to summer school until improvements are made.
There are many factors which can improve the standard of education in Zambia . Some of the factors which are thought to improve education are the, class size, books in library, teacher training, even money spent per student.
Universal primary education in Zambia is contingent on several factors, such as the existence of cost-effective schools, better curricula, and an awareness among parents, especially in rural areas, of the importance of education. However, the single most important factor in getting children to complete primary school is improving the structure of Zambia 's school system.
Currently, there exist many obstacles on the road to a smoothly functioning system. These include political interference, corruption, over-centralization, a lack of school autonomy, underdeveloped managerial capacity and poor information systems.
However, there are five institutional reforms that can help improve Zambia 's educational structure so that it can achieve the goal of universal primary education.
The first reform is the decentralization of decision-making, which improves education administration. Presently, Zambian educational system is highly centralized even though it is widely understood that basic education is better provided in a system that is administered at the district and village level.
A highly centralized system does not respond as effectively to local needs. The bureaucracy interferes with the flow of resources and information. It also means higher level administrators have less time to devote to important issues like program design, implementation, and monitoring.
This decentralization means governments must develop partnerships with communities, NGOs, and the private sector to delegate responsibility effectively in order to achieve universal primary education.
another step necessary for improving the system is greater autonomy for the schools. Currently, school principals have a limited decision-making capacity. In addition, schools do not have control over issues like curriculum, teacher appointment, discipline, and evaluation. There are virtually no opportunities for local staff development programs or resource mobilization.
By giving schools more independence, principals would have the authority to appoint personnel and determine crucial issues that affect the day-to-day affairs of schools. Principals, not upper-level bureaucrats, are in a better position to make these decisions since they deal with the daily realities of school life.
Another important reform is providing better support to, supervision of, and coordination of the school system at the district and provincial level. By making the district the key level for planning and management, state-level and central education bodies can focus more on policy-making, resource management and regulation.
One way to do this is by promoting good principals and teachers at the school level to enhance the institutional capacity of district level organizations. The lack of sufficient manpower is the most serious problem at the district and sub-district level.
Another necessary reform is to encourage decision-making be based on educational, not political, considerations. At present, politicians hand out teaching jobs as patronage appointments. Federal and provincial funds provided for education sometimes remain unused, especially in rural areas, since feudal landowners are opposed to educating "their" people.
The final necessary reform is to expand the information and research base of education in Zambia . Effective management and administration of the education system depends on the quality of the information system. Without reliable information, decision-makers cannot improve education policy and programs at the national, district and school levels.
One way of collecting reliable information about the state of education is to conduct standardized testing that measures student performance against national curriculum goals. These can be used to compare learning achievement across schools, districts and regions over time.
REFERENCES
Snelson, P. (1974). Education Development in Northern Rhodesia 1883
Lusaka : Kenneth Kaunda Foundation
http://sitwe.wordpress.com/, http://sitwe.blog.com/, http://bmsitwe.blog.com
Without any reasonable doubts, the term education has been defined by so many people in academic circles. Each of them defines the term in a different way. For instance, some scholar define education as an action exercised by the adult generation on those who are not yet ready for social life. According to UNESCO, Education is an organized and sustained communication process designed to bring about learning. Snelson (1974:1) defines education as
A condition of human survival. It is the means where by one generation transmits the wisdom, knowledge and experience which prepares the next generation for life’s duties and pleasure.
For one to embark on a project of improving the educational system in the case of Zambia , there is need for them to firstly understand what is already on the ground and basically find out what is missing or which areas needs improvements. If the author of this paper assumes the role of the ministry of education or permanent secretary in Zambia today, there are first priority things which need urgent attention in every respect.
Firstly, most schools in Zambia today have poor infrastructure from elementary level to tertiary level. At lower levels, there is even educational inequality between the rural and urban schools. The infrastructure and furniture especially for those in rural areas is extremely poor. Children are even sitting down on the ground in a grass thatched houses instead of having well established buildings and good furniture for conducive environment for learning. Being in such offices, infrastructure would be the first thing to worked on in both rural and urban schools.
Secondly, education is nothing without learning resources. The author would also work on resources for the education system. Procurement of books, maps, rulers, chalk and other learning resources would also increase.
A very straight-forward way is available to quickly and effectively improve American public schools. It is not expensive, and may even be less expensive than existing standard efforts. It involves operation of three physically separate parallel schools in a District. Attendance at specific schools would not depend on academic ability or knowledge, but on each individual student's social compatibility. Absolutely no discrimination exists because each student has the choice available to attend any of them.
At individual pupil level, there should be more focus on individual progress than on test scores. Test scores are not the only way of seeing how much a student understands and how intelligent are they. I believe more challenging courses should be provided for increased mental stimulation because if students had more challenging work, it would force them to work harder in order to pass.
Teachers should be payed more but there should also be higher standards in order to become a teacher because teachers have very important jobs. It is up to them to encourage and teach us so that we reach the peak of our potential.
Parental involvement is necessary. It is up to parents to make sure their children understand the value of a good education. Too often parents do not stress the importance of education and no wonder their children don't perform to the best of their abilities.
Curriculm revision would have to happen. Too often children are passed on to higher grade levels without learning the skills they need and so more time has to be dedicated towards reteaching skills that should've been learned.
Finally, stricter standards in order to pass to the next grade level should be set up. I believe 70% should be the lowest percentage a person could receive in order to pass and if the pupil receives grades lower than C minus in math and Language Arts, he or she should have to go to summer school until improvements are made.
There are many factors which can improve the standard of education in Zambia . Some of the factors which are thought to improve education are the, class size, books in library, teacher training, even money spent per student.
Universal primary education in Zambia is contingent on several factors, such as the existence of cost-effective schools, better curricula, and an awareness among parents, especially in rural areas, of the importance of education. However, the single most important factor in getting children to complete primary school is improving the structure of Zambia 's school system.
Currently, there exist many obstacles on the road to a smoothly functioning system. These include political interference, corruption, over-centralization, a lack of school autonomy, underdeveloped managerial capacity and poor information systems.
However, there are five institutional reforms that can help improve Zambia 's educational structure so that it can achieve the goal of universal primary education.
The first reform is the decentralization of decision-making, which improves education administration. Presently, Zambian educational system is highly centralized even though it is widely understood that basic education is better provided in a system that is administered at the district and village level.
A highly centralized system does not respond as effectively to local needs. The bureaucracy interferes with the flow of resources and information. It also means higher level administrators have less time to devote to important issues like program design, implementation, and monitoring.
This decentralization means governments must develop partnerships with communities, NGOs, and the private sector to delegate responsibility effectively in order to achieve universal primary education.
another step necessary for improving the system is greater autonomy for the schools. Currently, school principals have a limited decision-making capacity. In addition, schools do not have control over issues like curriculum, teacher appointment, discipline, and evaluation. There are virtually no opportunities for local staff development programs or resource mobilization.
By giving schools more independence, principals would have the authority to appoint personnel and determine crucial issues that affect the day-to-day affairs of schools. Principals, not upper-level bureaucrats, are in a better position to make these decisions since they deal with the daily realities of school life.
Another important reform is providing better support to, supervision of, and coordination of the school system at the district and provincial level. By making the district the key level for planning and management, state-level and central education bodies can focus more on policy-making, resource management and regulation.
One way to do this is by promoting good principals and teachers at the school level to enhance the institutional capacity of district level organizations. The lack of sufficient manpower is the most serious problem at the district and sub-district level.
Another necessary reform is to encourage decision-making be based on educational, not political, considerations. At present, politicians hand out teaching jobs as patronage appointments. Federal and provincial funds provided for education sometimes remain unused, especially in rural areas, since feudal landowners are opposed to educating "their" people.
The final necessary reform is to expand the information and research base of education in Zambia . Effective management and administration of the education system depends on the quality of the information system. Without reliable information, decision-makers cannot improve education policy and programs at the national, district and school levels.
One way of collecting reliable information about the state of education is to conduct standardized testing that measures student performance against national curriculum goals. These can be used to compare learning achievement across schools, districts and regions over time.
REFERENCES
Snelson, P. (1974). Education Development in Northern Rhodesia 1883
Lusaka : Kenneth Kaunda Foundation
http://sitwe.wordpress.com/, http://sitwe.blog.com/, http://bmsitwe.blog.com
Misconceptions about intelligency Test - essay form
In this paper, an attempt is being made to demonstrate clearly and with specific examples the main misconceptions about intelligence tests. The paper will firstly give brief definitions of key terms specifically intelligence and test. Secondly, it will account for the main misconception about intelligence tests with specific examples and finally a conclusion.
Kakkar (2005:82) define intelligence as the “extent of effectiveness with which a person deals with people, things and ideas, the effective integration of ones capacities and abilities to deal with one’s environment”. This definition clearly shows reflects that for a person to do something as expected he or she must be ready. This readiness must be disclosed in terms of maturation which develops as a result of biological processes. The manner in which a person handles things has a bearing to intelligence. For instance a person may be intelligent in mathematics but not in another subject like English. Another person may be intelligent in English but not in another subject like mathematics. Sometimes intelligence can also depend upon the environment in which a human being is found. A person tends to do well in things which he is exposed to since we acquire things from the environment. In other words, what is possible for one person may not be possible for another because of the different capacities to do them.
A test can be defined as an attempt to measure and determine the understanding of some individuals, how they perform to what extent they can go. Other scholars have further defined intelligence as an “ability to learn, the ability to carry on higher thoughts, especially abstract thinking and the ability to adapt to new situations”. Every human being is intelligent and what makes the difference between two individuals is the way we apply knowledge. Intelligence is inherited from parents but for them to develop, they need proper environment. Witting, etal (1984) define intelligence as “the ability to choose between items, the capacities to acquire, manipulate and apply knowledge”. The way we apply knowledge, reason and handle situation depicts intelligence. For example, if a person is able to carry out abstract thinking necessary for advancement of the society, he is classified as an intelligent person. A person who has the ability to adjust to new environment after a learning experience is said to be intelligent.
Intelligence therefore is inherited from parents but they need proper environment to develop them and bring them to function. As human beings, the kind of personality one becomes depends very much on the home he or she is born into, on his parents, on the village he lives in, on his school and on the tribe or nation to which he belongs. To this effect a person is a product of his heredity and also of his environment. In order to develop intelligence, the level of intelligence needs to be measured and determined.
Determination of intelligence is done through what is known as an intelligent test.
William and Wingo (1962:278) explain that “intelligence tests are psychologically established, respected and practiced in schools, industries and military organizations”. The definition helps us to understand that these intelligent tests play an important role in our daily lives. They help us to choose what we want to became because they serve a purpose in our lives. If one passes these intelligent tests very well, this can determine what one can do in life. Intelligence tests are used in various ways such as grading of pupils in respective classes, add-mission to colleges and also superior intelligent, maladjustment of educational and social nature. Not only are intelligence test used in the ways shown, but they also determine readiness to read, calculate some mathematical problem, determine the level of development and determine placement of subject-mater materials. For example if a pupil fails mathematics during his grad nine exams, he can not be allocated class where additional mathematics is being offered.
Although these intelligence tests are used to access the level of a learner, there are several misconceptions and superstitions that are attached to them. People have developed wrong concepts with regard to how the intelligent tests must be used, what they do and what they measure.
There are so many misconceptions about intelligence tests. One of these misconceptions about intelligence tests is that aptitude or intelligence tests measure native ability. Native ability means something that is fixed and is immutable inside the human beings. It also means some construct quality of something that is born in individual and that determined how well one does on test and ought to do in school and colleges. William and Wingo (1962:280) states that “the native ability may be reasonable but we should not suppose that only tests of mental ability measures the construct in any meaningful way”. For example, this test measures the pupil’s performance on a number of tasks and reveals how well the child can cope with tasks like those on the test at the time the child takes the test. However, the misconception here is that the score obtained by the learner in an intelligence test tells us nothing about the particular native ability of an individual child. As a result of this we can say that test items are invariable of some sort such that a child learns them in order to perform them. All in all aptitude test do not measure some fixed entity that a child was born with. To qualify this statement, we can say ability is not a construct entity but a quality of his behavior with respect to a set of tasks controlling him at the moment of writing the test. In other words, intelligence tests do not measure construct but helps to arrive at it through the measurement of behavior.
Another misconception is that students with high ability scores and low marks in schools are under achievers. Under-achievers are those not working up to capacity. High scores suggest that some pupils do better at school but he or she is not doing it using the God-given nature. This simply means that what students get in aptitude tests and those in schools differ because schools vary and teachers also vary in their demand on pupils. Approach to teaching differs from teacher to teacher and also school administrations differ from school to school. The pupils also vary in their perception of things. Therefore, this typical example is a misconception about intelligent test. The psychologists who construct and administer intelligent tests are called psychometricians.
The diagnosis that the child with high ability score but obtains low mark in school simply shows that he is unmotivated or lazy. It is to have high in an intelligence test and not in school. The problem may be in the teacher and the way he/she delivers his lesson to pupils. It could be methods of teaching. The unmotivated pupil will not work to the expected standard and the intelligence test a low marks in school would not match. Therefore, an individual can not be graded as an underachiever. This example is another misconception about intelligence test.
Thirdly, the cultural aspect of the individuals may also influence the result of the tests. What this means is that the tests must be cultural free in order to access an individual accordingly. If the test is affected by culture in which the individual has been born, brought up and lives, then no truthful results will be obtained. It is quiet difficult to satisfy this demand as children are surrounded by the environment which forms part of their culture. These tests should never be taken as concerned learners. The language of the learner, way of dressing are all part of his culture. The issue of cultural aspect influencing learners and intelligent tests another subjective misconception about the tests.
The fourth misconception about intelligence tests is that scores they yield should be absolutely accurately measure what they intend to measure. This assertion may not be true that whatever the test aims at measuring will be exactly measured. This is because the intelligent quotation (I.Q) of children changes with time, just like the chronological age (C.A) change. Therefore, tests student can take the IQ of 100 this year so it may be wrong to assume that the IQ of this student will be at 100 the following year. Results might be different because the IQ may rise to 120.
Another example on the fourth misconception is that even when the child takes the two tests on the same day, the child will not get the same marks. In this case, we can say that test results are not fixed. They are wobbly results, results which are shipperly, with little or no realization of their state. Serious judgmental issues as such lead to serious judgmental errors which can damage the education of a child.
The firth misconception about intelligence tests is that they are used to predict how well the student is likely to do in school or college. This prediction may not be true because you may predict a pupil to get A+ in English but the same pupil may end up with a B. it is uncertain to expect a student to do something which he might not do because the performance can be affected by the new environment and experiences he has gone through.
The last but not least misconception is that intelligence tests ascertain a person to have a larger amount of ability. This is not true because a person may have a large amount of ability only in a particular are and not in other areas. This implies that he may do well in calculations but he may have problems in spellings. Mental tasks which involve words, meanings form one cluster in an individual and those others to deal with numbers and their manipulations form another cluster. It would not be accurate to rank a student as having lager ability on the basis of a single intelligence test. One needs to go through a number of tests, based on a wider spectrum of his being in order to ascertain the abilities.
The mentioned misconceptions about intelligence test give us a picture of what it is to use the intelligence tests. Although they play a major role in the formation of classes or identification of those with potential, we should not entirely rely on them. This is because they can create a gap and misinform us about an individual. We should bear in mind that a person who scores low marks in an intelligence test is not an underachiever but he can do better than ever before.
REFERENCES
1. Kakkar, S.B. (2005). Educational Psychology. New Delhi : Prentice-Hall of India
(PVT) Limited.
2. William, C.M. and Wingo, G.M. (1962). Psychology and Teaching. (2nd Ed.)
Chicago : SCOH, Foresman and Company.
3. Witting, A.F. and Williams, G.iii. (1984). Psychology an Introduction. New
York : Mo Graw-Hill Book Company.
http://sitwe.wordpress.com/, http://sitwe.blog.com/, http://bmsitwe.blog.com
Kakkar (2005:82) define intelligence as the “extent of effectiveness with which a person deals with people, things and ideas, the effective integration of ones capacities and abilities to deal with one’s environment”. This definition clearly shows reflects that for a person to do something as expected he or she must be ready. This readiness must be disclosed in terms of maturation which develops as a result of biological processes. The manner in which a person handles things has a bearing to intelligence. For instance a person may be intelligent in mathematics but not in another subject like English. Another person may be intelligent in English but not in another subject like mathematics. Sometimes intelligence can also depend upon the environment in which a human being is found. A person tends to do well in things which he is exposed to since we acquire things from the environment. In other words, what is possible for one person may not be possible for another because of the different capacities to do them.
A test can be defined as an attempt to measure and determine the understanding of some individuals, how they perform to what extent they can go. Other scholars have further defined intelligence as an “ability to learn, the ability to carry on higher thoughts, especially abstract thinking and the ability to adapt to new situations”. Every human being is intelligent and what makes the difference between two individuals is the way we apply knowledge. Intelligence is inherited from parents but for them to develop, they need proper environment. Witting, etal (1984) define intelligence as “the ability to choose between items, the capacities to acquire, manipulate and apply knowledge”. The way we apply knowledge, reason and handle situation depicts intelligence. For example, if a person is able to carry out abstract thinking necessary for advancement of the society, he is classified as an intelligent person. A person who has the ability to adjust to new environment after a learning experience is said to be intelligent.
Intelligence therefore is inherited from parents but they need proper environment to develop them and bring them to function. As human beings, the kind of personality one becomes depends very much on the home he or she is born into, on his parents, on the village he lives in, on his school and on the tribe or nation to which he belongs. To this effect a person is a product of his heredity and also of his environment. In order to develop intelligence, the level of intelligence needs to be measured and determined.
Determination of intelligence is done through what is known as an intelligent test.
William and Wingo (1962:278) explain that “intelligence tests are psychologically established, respected and practiced in schools, industries and military organizations”. The definition helps us to understand that these intelligent tests play an important role in our daily lives. They help us to choose what we want to became because they serve a purpose in our lives. If one passes these intelligent tests very well, this can determine what one can do in life. Intelligence tests are used in various ways such as grading of pupils in respective classes, add-mission to colleges and also superior intelligent, maladjustment of educational and social nature. Not only are intelligence test used in the ways shown, but they also determine readiness to read, calculate some mathematical problem, determine the level of development and determine placement of subject-mater materials. For example if a pupil fails mathematics during his grad nine exams, he can not be allocated class where additional mathematics is being offered.
Although these intelligence tests are used to access the level of a learner, there are several misconceptions and superstitions that are attached to them. People have developed wrong concepts with regard to how the intelligent tests must be used, what they do and what they measure.
There are so many misconceptions about intelligence tests. One of these misconceptions about intelligence tests is that aptitude or intelligence tests measure native ability. Native ability means something that is fixed and is immutable inside the human beings. It also means some construct quality of something that is born in individual and that determined how well one does on test and ought to do in school and colleges. William and Wingo (1962:280) states that “the native ability may be reasonable but we should not suppose that only tests of mental ability measures the construct in any meaningful way”. For example, this test measures the pupil’s performance on a number of tasks and reveals how well the child can cope with tasks like those on the test at the time the child takes the test. However, the misconception here is that the score obtained by the learner in an intelligence test tells us nothing about the particular native ability of an individual child. As a result of this we can say that test items are invariable of some sort such that a child learns them in order to perform them. All in all aptitude test do not measure some fixed entity that a child was born with. To qualify this statement, we can say ability is not a construct entity but a quality of his behavior with respect to a set of tasks controlling him at the moment of writing the test. In other words, intelligence tests do not measure construct but helps to arrive at it through the measurement of behavior.
Another misconception is that students with high ability scores and low marks in schools are under achievers. Under-achievers are those not working up to capacity. High scores suggest that some pupils do better at school but he or she is not doing it using the God-given nature. This simply means that what students get in aptitude tests and those in schools differ because schools vary and teachers also vary in their demand on pupils. Approach to teaching differs from teacher to teacher and also school administrations differ from school to school. The pupils also vary in their perception of things. Therefore, this typical example is a misconception about intelligent test. The psychologists who construct and administer intelligent tests are called psychometricians.
The diagnosis that the child with high ability score but obtains low mark in school simply shows that he is unmotivated or lazy. It is to have high in an intelligence test and not in school. The problem may be in the teacher and the way he/she delivers his lesson to pupils. It could be methods of teaching. The unmotivated pupil will not work to the expected standard and the intelligence test a low marks in school would not match. Therefore, an individual can not be graded as an underachiever. This example is another misconception about intelligence test.
Thirdly, the cultural aspect of the individuals may also influence the result of the tests. What this means is that the tests must be cultural free in order to access an individual accordingly. If the test is affected by culture in which the individual has been born, brought up and lives, then no truthful results will be obtained. It is quiet difficult to satisfy this demand as children are surrounded by the environment which forms part of their culture. These tests should never be taken as concerned learners. The language of the learner, way of dressing are all part of his culture. The issue of cultural aspect influencing learners and intelligent tests another subjective misconception about the tests.
The fourth misconception about intelligence tests is that scores they yield should be absolutely accurately measure what they intend to measure. This assertion may not be true that whatever the test aims at measuring will be exactly measured. This is because the intelligent quotation (I.Q) of children changes with time, just like the chronological age (C.A) change. Therefore, tests student can take the IQ of 100 this year so it may be wrong to assume that the IQ of this student will be at 100 the following year. Results might be different because the IQ may rise to 120.
Another example on the fourth misconception is that even when the child takes the two tests on the same day, the child will not get the same marks. In this case, we can say that test results are not fixed. They are wobbly results, results which are shipperly, with little or no realization of their state. Serious judgmental issues as such lead to serious judgmental errors which can damage the education of a child.
The firth misconception about intelligence tests is that they are used to predict how well the student is likely to do in school or college. This prediction may not be true because you may predict a pupil to get A+ in English but the same pupil may end up with a B. it is uncertain to expect a student to do something which he might not do because the performance can be affected by the new environment and experiences he has gone through.
The last but not least misconception is that intelligence tests ascertain a person to have a larger amount of ability. This is not true because a person may have a large amount of ability only in a particular are and not in other areas. This implies that he may do well in calculations but he may have problems in spellings. Mental tasks which involve words, meanings form one cluster in an individual and those others to deal with numbers and their manipulations form another cluster. It would not be accurate to rank a student as having lager ability on the basis of a single intelligence test. One needs to go through a number of tests, based on a wider spectrum of his being in order to ascertain the abilities.
The mentioned misconceptions about intelligence test give us a picture of what it is to use the intelligence tests. Although they play a major role in the formation of classes or identification of those with potential, we should not entirely rely on them. This is because they can create a gap and misinform us about an individual. We should bear in mind that a person who scores low marks in an intelligence test is not an underachiever but he can do better than ever before.
REFERENCES
1. Kakkar, S.B. (2005). Educational Psychology. New Delhi : Prentice-Hall of India
(PVT) Limited.
2. William, C.M. and Wingo, G.M. (1962). Psychology and Teaching. (2nd Ed.)
Chicago : SCOH, Foresman and Company.
3. Witting, A.F. and Williams, G.iii. (1984). Psychology an Introduction. New
York : Mo Graw-Hill Book Company.
http://sitwe.wordpress.com/, http://sitwe.blog.com/, http://bmsitwe.blog.com
Similarities and differences between indigenous African education and missionary type of education
Mkandawire Sitwe Benson (2005)similarities and differences between indigenous African education and that type of education which was brought by the missionaries. The discussion will start with aims, objectives, organization, administration, content and the methods of teaching.
The term education has got a lot of definitions. Different scholars in the world give different definitions in trying to capture the subject matter. Some scholars like Snelson (1974:1) defines education as
A condition of human survival. It is the means where by one generation transmits the wisdom, knowledge and experience which prepares the next generation for life’s duties and pleasure.
Although this definition may not cater or address all the issues raised in education, it helps us to have a wide knowledge about all aspects of education. This also helps us to act with more insight and more intelligence in molding the youths in an acceptable manner. As human beings, the kind of personality one becomes will depend very much on the home he/she is born into, on his parents, on his village in which they are brought up. It can also be based on his or her school and on the tribe or nation to which they belongs. The kind of personality will not only depend on the things mentioned but also on beliefs and ideas that he will encounter throughout his life.
Education existed as early as man’s history. It existed for a long time as human beings started living in societies of Africa and this education is referred to indigenous African education. We find evidence of possession of knowledge, skills and customs told by the old generation. On the other hand the missionaries of the Christian church brought modern education to Africa , who had concluded that Africans where completely uneducated. A mistake which they had.
However, there are a lot of similarities and differences between the two terms. One of the similarities between indigenous African education and the type of education brought by missionaries is that they had the same purpose of preparing of the young generation into a useful adult life in household, village and tribe. Both aimed at bringing up an individual as a responsible person in the society. This was done through the transmitting of attitudes, values, skills social understanding and the various customs of the society.
Both indigenous and missionary types of education had an aim of equipping leaders on how to perform social functions respecting of their adults and other people in the society.. For instance in the village or denomination to which they belonged, children were taught different survival skills.
Both types of education prepared individuals for employment in their own environment because they believed that people must have life. To this effect they taught people how to find food through farming. Areas which had fertile soils were identified as farms and various crops such as maize, beans and groundnuts where grown. Furthermore, they both believed that shelter was very important for people to live in. hence, construction of houses was encouraged and some of them developed the skill of building such shelters.
Both types of education believed in good morality that is how to live well. Education tended to focus on instruction as they where taught how to live in order to be accepted in the society. Accepted values and norms such as honesty, generosity, diligence and hospitality where part of civic education.
In terms of differences, we can say that, although both were agents of transmitting culture to the young generation, indigenous African education taught children their own African culture based within their own society while missionaries brought in their culture from another society specifically European to which African children were not very familiar with.
Indigenous African education was for everyone in Africa and existed for the purpose of strengthening the African community while missionaries aimed at promoting the growth of their church. The aims and objectives of indigenous African education according to Kelly (1999) were to teach or instilling of the accepted standards and beliefs governing good behaviour, creating unit and general agreement by people. However competition on practical and intellectual basis was encouraged while the education of the missionaries mainly focused on spreading Christianity
In terms of organization structure, the education brought by the missionaries was hierarchically structure from lowest to the highest level while African education according to Farrant (1980:30) states that “indegenious education had no schools or buildings or formal organization of either nation or local educational systems”.
As for indigenous African education, this clearly tells us that it had unstructured type of education in terms of hierarchy. This explains why education took place any time and anywhere in the indigenous African education. It could take place under a tree, in the bush as they where hunting or collecting fire wood or fruits. In some societies where education was largely informal parents where predominatly responsible for teaching using their house holds as the school. This house hold education covered practical skills and continued as long as the child lived with his/her parents. In short, this type of education was informal and there was no sort of organization at local or national level. In the economic sphere education depended on geographical point of location for that society to satisfy their own needs.
In terms of agriculture, Sherington (1987:8) pointed out that a person learnt how to grow crops in the indigenous African education such as finger millet, rice, wheat, sorghum, maize, sweetpotatoe and pumpkins. This was an economic system of education. Apart from this type of education system the indigenous African education also practiced technology in which they learned how to manufacture metal tools such as axes, hoes, spears, merchants, knives, arrows and bows. There was also a political stability of life among the indigenous African people which led to the political system. Society was based first of all on family relations; the smallest social unit was home stead in which a child learnt how to behave with the mother and father. Chief was recognized as a leader of all civil, military, judiciary and religious matters affecting the people in his area. This type of education had religious teachings centred on supreme beings with strong believes in the ancestral spirits. The young people had to learn when and why spirits of the departed had to be propitiated on ceremonial purification had to be performed. The value of certain charms and protective medicine.
Unlike indigenous education the missionaries had structured type of education since they had buildings where learning took place. This explains why they had an organized link between local and international institutions (outside). This type of education was formal and school building were well established. However, these established structures were divided into three categories that is lower level, middle level and upper level. They had curriculum and time table in place.
In spite of both indigenous and missionaries education having teachers, the indigenous African teachers were not specific. The teaching included any one elderly or knowledgeable person that the teachers. Missionary education had an obligation to train teachers and these were paid in kind. The trained teachers were those who could read, understand and interpret the bible. Training of teachers took place at normal schools.
On content of indigenous education, the physical environment influenced the content of the curriculum. This shows as that what was taught meant to assist the child to adjust and adapt to the environment so that the child could exploit and derive benefit from it. The child learnt about landscape, weather and about plants and animals so as to come to term with the environment. In addition, the physical situation influenced what practical skills the child acquired in order to be prepared for the future responsibilities. For instance, boys and girls who lived in fishing areas learnt such skills
In addition to what has been highlighted on above, the principle aim of the African education was to prepare an individual for self reliance, there was early introduction for adult life from six years. This was to free the infancy from dependants upon parents. To this effect, education was based on the assumption that an individual can participate in community life and benefit from the education the community had to offer. Learners were impacted with knowledge on survival skills such as carpentry, forming pottery and basketry. Unlike indigenous African education, missionaries’ type of education had a sore objective to spread the knowledge about religions among forefathers and other nations. The aim of spreading the world of God was to have people who are literate to read and interpret the bible. Most of the Christian leaders were nurtured through education in order to sing hymn songs in foreign language. The type of education that was brought by the missionaries was aimed at making Africans learn how to read and write so that Africans can easily be converted to Christianity. Thus, the missionaries were motivated to give formal education, (that is literacy and numercy) so that Africans could read the Bible (evangelization) and spread the gospel to others.
To a large extent the missionaries discarded our way of life. They thought we are ignorant and know nothing. They rejected much of tradition way of life because their desire was to convert as many as possible to Christianity religion. Thus, the education provided was biased towards religion.
Ocitti (1973) states that
African indigenous education, was highly centralised the powers were limited to tribal social division (family, lineage or village, clan, chiefdom). Organizations mainly describe the social relationships that existed, that are the rights and duties of husbands, wives and children. It also looks at whether a particular tribe is patrilineal, that is, Children belong to the husband or matrilineal where descent is towards the mother’s side or family. The relation between relatives (for example mothers or father’s brother) was also seen to have special importance to a child’s growing up.
In terms of facilitation, African indigenous education administration was being managed by the elders and not youths.
In the indigenous African education, children were strictly taught about land ownership and how people were to treaty. The whole land would be administered by the kings or chiefs who used to get into the throne through the matrilineal system of kingship in which someone gets into power through hereditary.
Politically, the indigenous African education was highly organized with strong beliefs in guardians. They belied in working in groups and generally the content of indigenous education had much stress on the communal and social aspect rather than on an individual. This was done mainly to prepare boys and girls for adult life in households, villages and tribes as mentioned earlier.
Mwanakatwe (1974)) argues that
The indigenous type of education is not flexible. That is why the type of education provided was “static”. This means that it was unchanging from generation to generation, in other words it was rather conservative and not innovative. Thus it was the same education that was practiced over and over for years. The content of indigenous education had its paramount importance on the detailed knowledge of physical environment and the skills to exploit it. For instance, hunting on the part of men and farming the part of females. It also had its stress on togetherness or unity as well as understanding the rights and obligation of each individual in a particular society. The concept of togetherness would teach the indigenous people on how to live and work with others within the societies or chiefdoms. The rights and obligations will put in place the extent and limitations of individual rights. This was responsible for making sure that boys and girls understand what is required of them in a particular society.
In summary, indigenous African education was more practical than the kind of education brought by the missionaries. Indigenous type of education had a bearing to the traditions, norms and cultural being to the society to which the children belonged. African education was not well structured while western education was well structured and it was bookish. African education gave a sense of belonging to the culture while the missionaries kind of education did not.
References
Kelly, M.J. (1998). Origins and Development of Education in Zambia , Lusaka : Image
Publishers Limited.
Mwanakatwe M.J. (1974). The growth of Education in Zambia Since Independence,
Lusaka : Oxford UNZA Press.
Ocitti, J.P (1973). African Indigenous education. Nairobi : East Africa Literature Bureau
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The term education has got a lot of definitions. Different scholars in the world give different definitions in trying to capture the subject matter. Some scholars like Snelson (1974:1) defines education as
A condition of human survival. It is the means where by one generation transmits the wisdom, knowledge and experience which prepares the next generation for life’s duties and pleasure.
Although this definition may not cater or address all the issues raised in education, it helps us to have a wide knowledge about all aspects of education. This also helps us to act with more insight and more intelligence in molding the youths in an acceptable manner. As human beings, the kind of personality one becomes will depend very much on the home he/she is born into, on his parents, on his village in which they are brought up. It can also be based on his or her school and on the tribe or nation to which they belongs. The kind of personality will not only depend on the things mentioned but also on beliefs and ideas that he will encounter throughout his life.
Education existed as early as man’s history. It existed for a long time as human beings started living in societies of Africa and this education is referred to indigenous African education. We find evidence of possession of knowledge, skills and customs told by the old generation. On the other hand the missionaries of the Christian church brought modern education to Africa , who had concluded that Africans where completely uneducated. A mistake which they had.
However, there are a lot of similarities and differences between the two terms. One of the similarities between indigenous African education and the type of education brought by missionaries is that they had the same purpose of preparing of the young generation into a useful adult life in household, village and tribe. Both aimed at bringing up an individual as a responsible person in the society. This was done through the transmitting of attitudes, values, skills social understanding and the various customs of the society.
Both indigenous and missionary types of education had an aim of equipping leaders on how to perform social functions respecting of their adults and other people in the society.. For instance in the village or denomination to which they belonged, children were taught different survival skills.
Both types of education prepared individuals for employment in their own environment because they believed that people must have life. To this effect they taught people how to find food through farming. Areas which had fertile soils were identified as farms and various crops such as maize, beans and groundnuts where grown. Furthermore, they both believed that shelter was very important for people to live in. hence, construction of houses was encouraged and some of them developed the skill of building such shelters.
Both types of education believed in good morality that is how to live well. Education tended to focus on instruction as they where taught how to live in order to be accepted in the society. Accepted values and norms such as honesty, generosity, diligence and hospitality where part of civic education.
In terms of differences, we can say that, although both were agents of transmitting culture to the young generation, indigenous African education taught children their own African culture based within their own society while missionaries brought in their culture from another society specifically European to which African children were not very familiar with.
Indigenous African education was for everyone in Africa and existed for the purpose of strengthening the African community while missionaries aimed at promoting the growth of their church. The aims and objectives of indigenous African education according to Kelly (1999) were to teach or instilling of the accepted standards and beliefs governing good behaviour, creating unit and general agreement by people. However competition on practical and intellectual basis was encouraged while the education of the missionaries mainly focused on spreading Christianity
In terms of organization structure, the education brought by the missionaries was hierarchically structure from lowest to the highest level while African education according to Farrant (1980:30) states that “indegenious education had no schools or buildings or formal organization of either nation or local educational systems”.
As for indigenous African education, this clearly tells us that it had unstructured type of education in terms of hierarchy. This explains why education took place any time and anywhere in the indigenous African education. It could take place under a tree, in the bush as they where hunting or collecting fire wood or fruits. In some societies where education was largely informal parents where predominatly responsible for teaching using their house holds as the school. This house hold education covered practical skills and continued as long as the child lived with his/her parents. In short, this type of education was informal and there was no sort of organization at local or national level. In the economic sphere education depended on geographical point of location for that society to satisfy their own needs.
In terms of agriculture, Sherington (1987:8) pointed out that a person learnt how to grow crops in the indigenous African education such as finger millet, rice, wheat, sorghum, maize, sweetpotatoe and pumpkins. This was an economic system of education. Apart from this type of education system the indigenous African education also practiced technology in which they learned how to manufacture metal tools such as axes, hoes, spears, merchants, knives, arrows and bows. There was also a political stability of life among the indigenous African people which led to the political system. Society was based first of all on family relations; the smallest social unit was home stead in which a child learnt how to behave with the mother and father. Chief was recognized as a leader of all civil, military, judiciary and religious matters affecting the people in his area. This type of education had religious teachings centred on supreme beings with strong believes in the ancestral spirits. The young people had to learn when and why spirits of the departed had to be propitiated on ceremonial purification had to be performed. The value of certain charms and protective medicine.
Unlike indigenous education the missionaries had structured type of education since they had buildings where learning took place. This explains why they had an organized link between local and international institutions (outside). This type of education was formal and school building were well established. However, these established structures were divided into three categories that is lower level, middle level and upper level. They had curriculum and time table in place.
In spite of both indigenous and missionaries education having teachers, the indigenous African teachers were not specific. The teaching included any one elderly or knowledgeable person that the teachers. Missionary education had an obligation to train teachers and these were paid in kind. The trained teachers were those who could read, understand and interpret the bible. Training of teachers took place at normal schools.
On content of indigenous education, the physical environment influenced the content of the curriculum. This shows as that what was taught meant to assist the child to adjust and adapt to the environment so that the child could exploit and derive benefit from it. The child learnt about landscape, weather and about plants and animals so as to come to term with the environment. In addition, the physical situation influenced what practical skills the child acquired in order to be prepared for the future responsibilities. For instance, boys and girls who lived in fishing areas learnt such skills
In addition to what has been highlighted on above, the principle aim of the African education was to prepare an individual for self reliance, there was early introduction for adult life from six years. This was to free the infancy from dependants upon parents. To this effect, education was based on the assumption that an individual can participate in community life and benefit from the education the community had to offer. Learners were impacted with knowledge on survival skills such as carpentry, forming pottery and basketry. Unlike indigenous African education, missionaries’ type of education had a sore objective to spread the knowledge about religions among forefathers and other nations. The aim of spreading the world of God was to have people who are literate to read and interpret the bible. Most of the Christian leaders were nurtured through education in order to sing hymn songs in foreign language. The type of education that was brought by the missionaries was aimed at making Africans learn how to read and write so that Africans can easily be converted to Christianity. Thus, the missionaries were motivated to give formal education, (that is literacy and numercy) so that Africans could read the Bible (evangelization) and spread the gospel to others.
To a large extent the missionaries discarded our way of life. They thought we are ignorant and know nothing. They rejected much of tradition way of life because their desire was to convert as many as possible to Christianity religion. Thus, the education provided was biased towards religion.
Ocitti (1973) states that
African indigenous education, was highly centralised the powers were limited to tribal social division (family, lineage or village, clan, chiefdom). Organizations mainly describe the social relationships that existed, that are the rights and duties of husbands, wives and children. It also looks at whether a particular tribe is patrilineal, that is, Children belong to the husband or matrilineal where descent is towards the mother’s side or family. The relation between relatives (for example mothers or father’s brother) was also seen to have special importance to a child’s growing up.
In terms of facilitation, African indigenous education administration was being managed by the elders and not youths.
In the indigenous African education, children were strictly taught about land ownership and how people were to treaty. The whole land would be administered by the kings or chiefs who used to get into the throne through the matrilineal system of kingship in which someone gets into power through hereditary.
Politically, the indigenous African education was highly organized with strong beliefs in guardians. They belied in working in groups and generally the content of indigenous education had much stress on the communal and social aspect rather than on an individual. This was done mainly to prepare boys and girls for adult life in households, villages and tribes as mentioned earlier.
Mwanakatwe (1974)) argues that
The indigenous type of education is not flexible. That is why the type of education provided was “static”. This means that it was unchanging from generation to generation, in other words it was rather conservative and not innovative. Thus it was the same education that was practiced over and over for years. The content of indigenous education had its paramount importance on the detailed knowledge of physical environment and the skills to exploit it. For instance, hunting on the part of men and farming the part of females. It also had its stress on togetherness or unity as well as understanding the rights and obligation of each individual in a particular society. The concept of togetherness would teach the indigenous people on how to live and work with others within the societies or chiefdoms. The rights and obligations will put in place the extent and limitations of individual rights. This was responsible for making sure that boys and girls understand what is required of them in a particular society.
In summary, indigenous African education was more practical than the kind of education brought by the missionaries. Indigenous type of education had a bearing to the traditions, norms and cultural being to the society to which the children belonged. African education was not well structured while western education was well structured and it was bookish. African education gave a sense of belonging to the culture while the missionaries kind of education did not.
References
Kelly, M.J. (1998). Origins and Development of Education in Zambia , Lusaka : Image
Publishers Limited.
Mwanakatwe M.J. (1974). The growth of Education in Zambia Since Independence,
Lusaka : Oxford UNZA Press.
Ocitti, J.P (1973). African Indigenous education. Nairobi : East Africa Literature Bureau
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