INDIGENOUS AFRICAN EDUCATION
The principle aim of this paper is discuss the assertion that “African children in pre-colonial period learnt what they lived”. The paper will be discussed in the light of what is known about indigenous African education. However, to discuss this topic thoroughly, a comparative approach in this discussion will be sustained in relation to the education brought by the missionaries or modern education today.
What one would say without any arguments is that education existed for as long as human beings started living in their societies in Africa. This type of education is known as indigenous African education or traditional African education. This type of education existed in Africa way back before the coming of the missionaries. However, the missionaries came along with what is known as modern education or western education. Each form of education had its own strengths and weaknesses. When the missionaries came, they only looked at the weaknesses of traditional African indigenous education and concluded based on what they saw that Africans were uneducated. Little did the missionaries consider the merits of indigenous African education even neglecting the fact that African children in pre-colonial period learnt what they lived.
Kelly (1999:1) define education as a life long process in which the older generation impart skills, values and knowledge into the young ones for their own survival. “Education is not the same as schooling, but it is a life long process conducted by many agencies”. Education is the action exercised by adult generation on those who are not yet ready for social life.
African children in pre-colonial period learnt what they lived because they acquired Informal education which is the life-long process whereby every individual acquires attitudes, values, skills and knowledge from daily experiences and other educational influences and resources in each one’s environment for their own survival. This is the type of education where one 1earns how to survive in life through experiences and instructions from the elders by adapting to the environment.
Survivalistic education teaches individuals to adapt to the environment by finding out means of surviving on their own void of others. It is clear in Africa and Zambia in particular today that there is no any other form of education taught for the survival of the children as it were in the indigenous African education. Individuals acquired most of their knowledge, skills, attitudes and values through informal education, that is, in the home, from the media, on the streets etcetera. African children in pre-colonial period learnt what they lived simply because their type of education looked mainly at the wellbeing of an individual and it can be eloquently said that education existed in every society around the world. If education never existed, then people would never have managed to survive. However, the provision of education may have differed depending on the social needs of the people in a particular society. Thus, it would be imperative to argue based its nature that African children in pre-colonial period learnt what they lived in every respect.
Before the introduction of education brought by the missionaries in Africa, there was a form of education that was aimed at preparing people for a better life in the society. This type of education started from childhood until such a time when an individual attained adulthood. Kelly (1999) states that although indigenous education systems can vary from one place to another, the goals of these systems are often strikingly similar. He further argued that the aim of indigenous education concerned with instilling the accepted standards and beliefs governing correct behaviour and creating unity and consensus. This looked mainly at the role of an individual in society. On the contrary, modern education or the type of education that was brought by the missionaries was aimed at making Africans learn how to read and write so that Africans can easily be converted to Christianity. Thus, the missionaries were motivated to give formal education, that is literacy and numeracy so that Africans could read the Bible (evangelization) and spread the gospel to others. The missionaries rejected much of tradition way of life because their desire was to convert as many Africans as possible to Christianity religion. Thus, the education provided was biased towards religion. The more the indigenous people learnt how to read the Bible the higher the chances that they would be drown -to the Christian faith. This kind of education did not teach African children to adapt to their environments.
African children in pre-colonial period learnt what they lived as seen in the way their education system was organised. In terms of organisation, Ocitti (1973) argued that in African indigenous education, the powers were limited to tribal social division family, lineage or village, clan, chiefdom. Organisations mainly describe the social relationships that existed, that are the rights and duties of husbands, wives and children. It also looks at whether a particular tribe is patrilineal or matrilineal that is children belong to the husband or matrilineal where descent is towards the mother’s side or family. The relation between relatives (for example mothers or father’s brother) was also seen to have special importance to a child’s growing up. This strongly strengthened learners to be oriented towards what they were doing.
African children in pre-colonial period learnt what they lived as their education was organised and administered in the way that learners could easily adapt to it. In African indigenous education, administration was done by the elders who determined what was best for their generation and those generations to come. The entire tribe or chiefdom would be administered by the kings or chiefs who would either be elected or put in power through hereditary. The chief was mainly assisted by the council which composed of the elder men of the tribe. It was some of these elders who would play a bigger role in the provision of indigenous education by establishing was children were encountering in their daily lives. This is because the education was mainly towards the inculcation of good morals.
The content of indigenous education had much stress on the communal and social aspect rather than on an individual. This was done mainly to prepare boys and girls for adult life in households, villages and tribes. That is why the type of education provided was described as “static”. This means that it was unchanging from generation to generation, in other words it was rather conservative with little innovation. Thus it was the same education that was practiced over and over for years. (Mwanakatwe, 1974)
The content of indigenous education had its paramount importance on the detailed knowledge of physical environment and the skills to exploit it. For instance, hunting on the part of men and farming the part of females. It also had its stress on togetherness or unity as well as understanding the rights and obligation of each individual in a particular society. The concept of togetherness would teach the indigenous people on how to live and work with others within the societies or chiefdoms. The rights and obligations will put in place the extent and limitations of individual rights. This was responsible for making sure that boys and girls understand what is required of them in a particular society.
In its content, indigenous education also included laws, moral principles obligation to ancestral spirits, to relatives and to others in groups or tribe. (Mwanakatwe: 1996). It is from these lessons that children would learn to respect elders as well as pay allegiance to the spirits if they wanted their days of their lives to be extended.
In contrast, the content of the education provided by the missionaries was only biased towards religion. Snelson (1974) argued that the education provided had stress on bible doctrines, agriculture, Carpentry, black smithering and other skills that would help people raise their standards after which they would be drawn to the Christian religion. This type of education had no appeal to the way people had hitherto transmitted wisdom knowledge and experiences from one generation to the next. This means that the missionaries did not consider the indigenous African education to benefit them in any way neither did they consider how helpful it was even to the Africans themselves.
Indigenous education encouraged togetherness or corporation rather than competition as it is today. In short, competition was discouraged in any way possible; instead unit was always the talk of the day in indigenous education rather than today’s education which encourages competition.
African children in pre-colonial period learnt what they lived because the methods of teaching used in indigenous education were plain and similar because they were action oriented and all based on doing. It was planned from childhood to adulthood for children to adapt to their environments. So children would learn through “imitations” Men would work, hunt or play and boys would imitate. Women would also do the house chores in the presence of their daughters and later tell them to do likewise. Sometimes, especially at evening time, children would learn through oral literature as elders told education stories while sited around a fire. This was actually the time when fear and punishment was used as motivators for learning and behaviour. For instance, children would be told to stand still if elders are passing and never to answer harshly if elders are rebuking them. They used to be told that defaulters would grow hair on the neck or the earth would open and swallow them. Thus the children would adhere to the instructions out of fear.
The other methods used were through social ceremonies and initiation ceremonies. The later is where a boy or girl was taken in seclusion after attaining puberty. The men were taught to work hard and provide for their families while the women were taught to care for their husbands, children and the entire family. It was during this time that men and women were taught to participate in adult activities fully (that is, fishing, hunting, housekeeping etcetera). (Kelly 1999). All these justifies that African children in pre-colonial period learnt what they lived
African children in pre-colonial period learnt what they lived due to the fact that traditional education was meaningful, unifying, holistic, effective, practical and relevant to the individual as well as the community at large. It created strong human bonds because it involved the whole community. It was also recommended for the fact that there was separation between education ands the world of work. Thus, it reached out to and educated the whole person.
African indigenous education was valuable to both the individual as well as the society. An individual benefited in that emphasis was much more concerned with instilling the accepted standards and beliefs governing correct behaviour. In addition, indigenous did not encourage competitiveness in intellectual and practical matters instead it created unity consensus among members of a particular society or tribe. Thus indigenous education was not only concerned with socialization of younger generation into norms, religion, moral beliefs and collective opinions of the wider society, it also laid a very strong emphasis on acquisition of knowledge which was useful to the individual and society as whole. (Kelly 1999).
In a recap, indigenous forms of education served the needs of the community as a whole justifying that African children in pre-colonial period learnt what they lived. Hence, indigenous education theory hold that each of the individual’s relationship affects and is affected by all the other members of the community. There is need to harmonize and integrate the best elements of both indigenous and today’s education system in order to create more viable system of education in Africa .
References
Blakemore and Cooksey (1980). A Sociology of Education for Africa . London Allen and Unwin Publishers.
Bray M and Stephens (1986). Education and Society in Africa, London : Edward Arnold
Kelly, M.J. (1998). Origin and Development of Schools in Zambia , Lusaka : Image Publishers Limited.
Mwanakatwe M.J. (1974). The growth of Education in Zambia Since Independence, Lusaka : Oxford UNZA Press.
Ocitti, J.P (1973). African Indigenous education. Nairobi : East Africa Literature Bureau
Sunday, October 30, 2011
INCLUSIVE EDUCATION
INCLUSIVE EDUCATION
UNESCO’s (1994) stance that “The fundamental principle of inclusive schooling is that all children should learn together whenever possible regardless of any difficulties or differences they may have” is valid and entirely subjective. However, the principle aim of this paper is to discuss this quotation in support for inclusive education.
Inclusion education is the practice, in which students with special educational needs spend most or all of their time with non-disabled students. Implementation of this practice varies; schools can use it for selected students with mild to severe special needs. Description: Inclusive education differs from previously held notions of ‘integration’ and ‘mainstreaming’, which tended to be concerned principally with disability and ‘special educational needs’ and implied learners changing or becoming ‘ready for’ accommodation by the mainstream. By contrast, inclusion is about the child’s right to participate and the school’s duty to accept the child. Inclusion rejects the use of special schools or classrooms to separate students with disabilities from students without disabilities. A premium is placed upon full participation by students with disabilities and upon respect for their social, civil, and educational rights. Inclusive education should be encouraged because it gives opportunity to learners from the different backgrounds to interact, accept and learn from each other.
Inclusive education is important because Inclusive schools would no longer distinguish between "general education" and "special education" programs; instead, the school would be restructured so that all students learn together, pass through similar and the same kind of experience and have the audacity to focus on developing their nations together in every way.
The other importance of inclusive education is that there would be maximum participation of all learners in the community schools of their choice, make learning more meaningful and relevant for all, particularly those learners most vulnerable to exclusionary pressures, and to rethink and restructure policies, curricula, cultures and practices in schools and learning environments so that diverse learning needs can be met, whatever the origin or nature of those needs.
Cortiella (2009) indicates that inclusive education is very important as it provides opportunity to all students learn together. She says all students can learn and benefit from education. Schools can easily adapt to the needs of students, rather than students adapting to the needs of the school. Individual differences between students are a source of richness and diversity, and not a problem. The diversity of needs and pace of development of students are addressed through a wide and flexible range of responses (so long as those responses do not include removing a student with a disability from a general education classroom).
Therefore, she defines inclusive education as the process of removing barriers and enabling all students, including previously excluded groups, to learn and participate effectively within general school systems.
Thomas and Loxley (2007)indicate that Inclusion has just two sub-types: the first is sometimes called regular inclusion or partial inclusion, and the other is full inclusion. In a "partial inclusion" setting, students with special needs are educated in regular classes for nearly all of the day, or at least for more than half of the day. Whenever possible, the students receive any additional help or special instruction in the general classroom. Most specialized services are provided outside a regular classroom, particularly if these services require special equipment or might be disruptive to the rest of the class (such as speech therapy), and students are pulled out for these services. In this case, the student occasionally leaves the regular classroom to attend smaller, more intensive instructional sessions in a resource room, or to receive other related services, such as speech and language therapy, occupational and/or physical therapy, and social work. This approach can be very similar to many mainstreaming practices.
It is necessary that all children should learn together whenever possible regardless of any difficulties or differences they may have as a way of providing them with equal access to facilities and diversity in learning. Inclusion takes disengaged students, as well as some students with special needs, out of class confinement and put into an alternative cross-age peer group to develop strong relationships and enable them to better cope with general education classes. All students in Full inclusive education are in a complete integration with each other and all student with a special need into the general education classroom. The student receives all special services in the same general education classroom as all other students. This is very common with students whose needs are easily met in a classroom, such as a modification that allows the student more time to complete written assignments. Schools that practice full inclusion for all students have no separate special education classes. However, full inclusion of all students, regardless of their particular needs, is a controversial practice, and it is not widely applied. It is more common for local educational agencies to provide a variety of settings, from special classrooms to mainstreaming to inclusion, and to assign students to the system that seems most likely to help the student achieve his or her individual educational goals.
Although the argument that all children should learn together whenever possible regardless of any difficulties or differences they may have sounds fair enough, it is very difficult to successfully address the needs of all children with disabilities because students with disabilities who are not included are typically either mainstreamed or segregated based on the extent of the problem under consideration. A mainstreamed student attends some general education classes, typically for less than half the day, and often for less rigorous classes. For example, a young student with significant intellectual disabilities might be mainstreamed for physical education classes, art classes and storybook time, but spend reading and mathematics classes with other students that have similar disabilities. For such students, it would be extremely difficult to ascertain that they can learn together with other abled children with full senses. A segregated student attends no classes with non-disabled students. He or she might attend a special school that only enrolls other students with disabilities, or might be placed in a dedicated, self-contained classroom in a school that also enrolls general education students. Some students may be confined to a hospital due to a medical condition and are thus eligible for tutoring services provided by a school district. While inclusive education is good for may reasons, it has its own advantages and disadvantages.
While its important that all children should learn together whenever possible regardless of any difficulties or differences they may have, this may be determined by many factors. The proportion of students with disabilities who are included varies by place and by type of disability, but it is relatively common for students with milder disabilities and less common with certain kinds of severe disabilities. In most universities in Zambia, students with learning disabilities are placed in general education classrooms full-time without properly considering other implications that might emanate out of this inclusion.
Stainback, and Stainback (1995) indicate that although inclusive education is hailed as a way to increase achievement while decreasing costs, full inclusion does not save money, reduce students' needs, or improve academic outcomes; in most cases, it merely moves the special education professionals out of their own classrooms and into a corner of the general classroom. To avoid harm to the academic education of students with disabilities, a full panoply of services and resources is required, including: Adequate supports and services for the students, professional development for all teachers involved, general and special educators alike, time for teachers to plan, meet, create, and evaluate the students together, reduced class size based on the severity of the student needs, Professional skill development in the areas of cooperative learning, peer tutoring, adaptive curriculum, Collaboration between parents, teachers and administrators and Sufficient funding so that schools will be able to develop programs for students based on student need instead of the availability of funding (Gillies, 2004).
Jorgensen, Schuh, Nisbet Scheyer et al. (1996) alkso indicates that in principle, several factors can determine the success of inclusive classrooms and these include: Family-school partnerships, Collaboration between general and special educators, Well-constructed plans that identify specific accommodations, modifications, and goals for each student, Coordinated planning and communication between "general" and "special needs" staff, Integrated service delivery, Ongoing training and staff development
Critics of inclusive education or full and partial inclusion include both educators, administrators and parents. Full and partial inclusion approaches neglect to acknowledge the fact most students with significant special needs require individualized instruction or highly controlled environments. Thus, general education classroom teachers often are teaching a curriculum while the special education teacher is remediating instruction at the same time. Similarly, a child with serious inattention problems may be unable to focus in a classroom that contains twenty or more active children. Although with the increase of incidence of disabilities in the student population, this is a circumstance all teachers must contend with, and is not a direct result of inclusion as a concept. Full inclusion may in fact be a way for schools to placate parents and the general public, using the word as a phrase to garner attention for what are in fact illusive efforts to education students with special needs in the general education environment.
It can be concluded that while the concept of having all children learning together whenever possible regardless of any difficulties or differences they may have is important for many reasons as discussed in the paper, it has many challenges as well. It is clear that children together can have equal access to the facilities as provided in the classroom and learn from each other in a certain way. However, it was pointed out that inclusive education would be more meaningful if the schools provide the needs of the learners rather than the learners meeting the needs of the schools.
References
Barkley, R.A. (1998). Attention deficit hyperactivity disorders: A handbook for diagnosis and treatment (2nd ed.). New York: Guilford.
Conrad M., & Whitaker T. (1997). Inclusion and the law: A principal’s proactive approach. The Clearing House
Cortiella, C. (2009). The State of Learning Disabilities. New York, NY: National Center for Learning Disabilities.
Gillies, R.M. (2004). The effects of cooperative learning on junior high school students during small group learning. Learning and Instruction, 14(2),197-213.
Jorgensen, C., Schuh, M., & Nisbet Scheyer et al. (1996). The Inclusive Classroom Teacher Created Materials, Inc. The Inclusive Classroom
Student teachers' attitudes toward the inclusion of children with special needs. Educational Psychology, Hastings. R.P., & Oakford, S. (2003), page 23, 87-95
Strully, J., & Strully, C. (1996). Friendships as an educational goal: What we have learned and where we are headed. In W. Stainback & S. Stainback (Eds.), Inclusion: A guide for educators. Balitmore: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co.
Stainback, W., & Stainback, S. (1995). Controversial Issues Confronting Special Education. Allyn & Bacon.
Thomas, G., & Loxley, A. (2007) Deconstructing Special Education and Constructing Inclusion (2nd Edition). Maidenhead: Open University Press.
UNESCO’s (1994) stance that “The fundamental principle of inclusive schooling is that all children should learn together whenever possible regardless of any difficulties or differences they may have” is valid and entirely subjective. However, the principle aim of this paper is to discuss this quotation in support for inclusive education.
Inclusion education is the practice, in which students with special educational needs spend most or all of their time with non-disabled students. Implementation of this practice varies; schools can use it for selected students with mild to severe special needs. Description: Inclusive education differs from previously held notions of ‘integration’ and ‘mainstreaming’, which tended to be concerned principally with disability and ‘special educational needs’ and implied learners changing or becoming ‘ready for’ accommodation by the mainstream. By contrast, inclusion is about the child’s right to participate and the school’s duty to accept the child. Inclusion rejects the use of special schools or classrooms to separate students with disabilities from students without disabilities. A premium is placed upon full participation by students with disabilities and upon respect for their social, civil, and educational rights. Inclusive education should be encouraged because it gives opportunity to learners from the different backgrounds to interact, accept and learn from each other.
Inclusive education is important because Inclusive schools would no longer distinguish between "general education" and "special education" programs; instead, the school would be restructured so that all students learn together, pass through similar and the same kind of experience and have the audacity to focus on developing their nations together in every way.
The other importance of inclusive education is that there would be maximum participation of all learners in the community schools of their choice, make learning more meaningful and relevant for all, particularly those learners most vulnerable to exclusionary pressures, and to rethink and restructure policies, curricula, cultures and practices in schools and learning environments so that diverse learning needs can be met, whatever the origin or nature of those needs.
Cortiella (2009) indicates that inclusive education is very important as it provides opportunity to all students learn together. She says all students can learn and benefit from education. Schools can easily adapt to the needs of students, rather than students adapting to the needs of the school. Individual differences between students are a source of richness and diversity, and not a problem. The diversity of needs and pace of development of students are addressed through a wide and flexible range of responses (so long as those responses do not include removing a student with a disability from a general education classroom).
Therefore, she defines inclusive education as the process of removing barriers and enabling all students, including previously excluded groups, to learn and participate effectively within general school systems.
Thomas and Loxley (2007)indicate that Inclusion has just two sub-types: the first is sometimes called regular inclusion or partial inclusion, and the other is full inclusion. In a "partial inclusion" setting, students with special needs are educated in regular classes for nearly all of the day, or at least for more than half of the day. Whenever possible, the students receive any additional help or special instruction in the general classroom. Most specialized services are provided outside a regular classroom, particularly if these services require special equipment or might be disruptive to the rest of the class (such as speech therapy), and students are pulled out for these services. In this case, the student occasionally leaves the regular classroom to attend smaller, more intensive instructional sessions in a resource room, or to receive other related services, such as speech and language therapy, occupational and/or physical therapy, and social work. This approach can be very similar to many mainstreaming practices.
It is necessary that all children should learn together whenever possible regardless of any difficulties or differences they may have as a way of providing them with equal access to facilities and diversity in learning. Inclusion takes disengaged students, as well as some students with special needs, out of class confinement and put into an alternative cross-age peer group to develop strong relationships and enable them to better cope with general education classes. All students in Full inclusive education are in a complete integration with each other and all student with a special need into the general education classroom. The student receives all special services in the same general education classroom as all other students. This is very common with students whose needs are easily met in a classroom, such as a modification that allows the student more time to complete written assignments. Schools that practice full inclusion for all students have no separate special education classes. However, full inclusion of all students, regardless of their particular needs, is a controversial practice, and it is not widely applied. It is more common for local educational agencies to provide a variety of settings, from special classrooms to mainstreaming to inclusion, and to assign students to the system that seems most likely to help the student achieve his or her individual educational goals.
Although the argument that all children should learn together whenever possible regardless of any difficulties or differences they may have sounds fair enough, it is very difficult to successfully address the needs of all children with disabilities because students with disabilities who are not included are typically either mainstreamed or segregated based on the extent of the problem under consideration. A mainstreamed student attends some general education classes, typically for less than half the day, and often for less rigorous classes. For example, a young student with significant intellectual disabilities might be mainstreamed for physical education classes, art classes and storybook time, but spend reading and mathematics classes with other students that have similar disabilities. For such students, it would be extremely difficult to ascertain that they can learn together with other abled children with full senses. A segregated student attends no classes with non-disabled students. He or she might attend a special school that only enrolls other students with disabilities, or might be placed in a dedicated, self-contained classroom in a school that also enrolls general education students. Some students may be confined to a hospital due to a medical condition and are thus eligible for tutoring services provided by a school district. While inclusive education is good for may reasons, it has its own advantages and disadvantages.
While its important that all children should learn together whenever possible regardless of any difficulties or differences they may have, this may be determined by many factors. The proportion of students with disabilities who are included varies by place and by type of disability, but it is relatively common for students with milder disabilities and less common with certain kinds of severe disabilities. In most universities in Zambia, students with learning disabilities are placed in general education classrooms full-time without properly considering other implications that might emanate out of this inclusion.
Stainback, and Stainback (1995) indicate that although inclusive education is hailed as a way to increase achievement while decreasing costs, full inclusion does not save money, reduce students' needs, or improve academic outcomes; in most cases, it merely moves the special education professionals out of their own classrooms and into a corner of the general classroom. To avoid harm to the academic education of students with disabilities, a full panoply of services and resources is required, including: Adequate supports and services for the students, professional development for all teachers involved, general and special educators alike, time for teachers to plan, meet, create, and evaluate the students together, reduced class size based on the severity of the student needs, Professional skill development in the areas of cooperative learning, peer tutoring, adaptive curriculum, Collaboration between parents, teachers and administrators and Sufficient funding so that schools will be able to develop programs for students based on student need instead of the availability of funding (Gillies, 2004).
Jorgensen, Schuh, Nisbet Scheyer et al. (1996) alkso indicates that in principle, several factors can determine the success of inclusive classrooms and these include: Family-school partnerships, Collaboration between general and special educators, Well-constructed plans that identify specific accommodations, modifications, and goals for each student, Coordinated planning and communication between "general" and "special needs" staff, Integrated service delivery, Ongoing training and staff development
Critics of inclusive education or full and partial inclusion include both educators, administrators and parents. Full and partial inclusion approaches neglect to acknowledge the fact most students with significant special needs require individualized instruction or highly controlled environments. Thus, general education classroom teachers often are teaching a curriculum while the special education teacher is remediating instruction at the same time. Similarly, a child with serious inattention problems may be unable to focus in a classroom that contains twenty or more active children. Although with the increase of incidence of disabilities in the student population, this is a circumstance all teachers must contend with, and is not a direct result of inclusion as a concept. Full inclusion may in fact be a way for schools to placate parents and the general public, using the word as a phrase to garner attention for what are in fact illusive efforts to education students with special needs in the general education environment.
It can be concluded that while the concept of having all children learning together whenever possible regardless of any difficulties or differences they may have is important for many reasons as discussed in the paper, it has many challenges as well. It is clear that children together can have equal access to the facilities as provided in the classroom and learn from each other in a certain way. However, it was pointed out that inclusive education would be more meaningful if the schools provide the needs of the learners rather than the learners meeting the needs of the schools.
References
Barkley, R.A. (1998). Attention deficit hyperactivity disorders: A handbook for diagnosis and treatment (2nd ed.). New York: Guilford.
Conrad M., & Whitaker T. (1997). Inclusion and the law: A principal’s proactive approach. The Clearing House
Cortiella, C. (2009). The State of Learning Disabilities. New York, NY: National Center for Learning Disabilities.
Gillies, R.M. (2004). The effects of cooperative learning on junior high school students during small group learning. Learning and Instruction, 14(2),197-213.
Jorgensen, C., Schuh, M., & Nisbet Scheyer et al. (1996). The Inclusive Classroom Teacher Created Materials, Inc. The Inclusive Classroom
Student teachers' attitudes toward the inclusion of children with special needs. Educational Psychology, Hastings. R.P., & Oakford, S. (2003), page 23, 87-95
Strully, J., & Strully, C. (1996). Friendships as an educational goal: What we have learned and where we are headed. In W. Stainback & S. Stainback (Eds.), Inclusion: A guide for educators. Balitmore: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co.
Stainback, W., & Stainback, S. (1995). Controversial Issues Confronting Special Education. Allyn & Bacon.
Thomas, G., & Loxley, A. (2007) Deconstructing Special Education and Constructing Inclusion (2nd Edition). Maidenhead: Open University Press.
LANGUAGE IS SPECIES SPECIFIC
LANGUAGE IS SPECIES SPECIFIC
The principle aim of this paper is to discuss the view that learning a language is species specific based on many arguments about the nature of learning a human language. The paper will take some cases of species or some animals specifically Washoe chimp and Nimchimpsky that had tried to learn a language and discuss the design features found in its language which are also found in the human language and pinpoint the design features that missed in its language that would make it disqualified as human language.
It is clear that language learning is species specific because the biological make up of different species is different. Humans cannot use or produce animal sounds thoroughly the way they do because their biological make up does not support certain sounds made by such animals. Equally some animals for example chimpanzees like Vick, Qua and others which tried to learn a human language could not manage because their biological make up is different to adequately support the human language in the same way humans use it. While its clear that most dominant living organisms like Birds, bees, bats, apes, worms, even humans have a communication system. Many animals use gestures, grunts, dances, whistles, or even cry to send a message to their other members. Humans have an unbounded discrete combinatorial system. Humans are able to take many morphemes, combine them together to make other meaningful words. Also, humans have rules and structures which enable them to make sentences. Many people may not relate the concept of human language to animals but it is merely a qualitative difference between the two species (Bickerton 1990).
Washoe chimp and Nimchimpsky tried to learn human languages alongside with others pecies. Washoe was trained in American Sign Language and showed the ability to make combinations of certain signs. She learned in ways she had never seen before. For example she combined the sign for "give me" with "tickle" to indicated she wanted to be tickled. Also, when encountering a monkey she disliked she signed "dirty" with "monkey" to express her disapproval of the other primate. The results were that Washoe could not learn successfully how to talk using human language but used sign language effectively to some extent. Nim Chimpsky, named after the great linguist Noam Chomsky, was the first chimpanzee to learn American sign language. Nim became famous, and was the subject of numerous books and television specials. But when the researchers had no more use for him, they opted to sell him to a hepatitis research lab, where he would have been the subject of painful experiments and eventually killed. Nim enjoyed looking at magazines, watching television, and putting on hats and shoes. The results on people’s attempts to teach monkeys intensively to learn human language failed.
After seriously lessons, animals failed to successfully learn a human language. The reasons for this failure is based on biological differences, it is clear that each species learns to communicate or a language of its own species. Thereby humans must learn a language communicated by fellow humans. Monkeys must learn a language communicated by fellow monkeys. Bees must learn the language communicated by fellow bees. This justifies the argument that language is species specific. Humans identify features that characterize their language and these features may not be found in the animals. However, the following properties of human language have been argued to separate it from animal communication: Arbitrariness which argues that there is no rational relationship between a sound or sign and its meaning. There is nothing intrinsically "housy" about the word "house" (Kako, 1999). Cultural transmissionarguing that Language is passed from one language user to the next, consciously or unconsciously. Discretenes says Language is composed of discrete units that are used in combination to create meaning. Displacement saying that Languages can be used to communicate ideas about things that are not in the immediate vicinity either spatially or temporally. Duality saying that Language works on two levels at once, a surface level and a semantic (meaningful) level. Metalinguistics showing the ability to discuss language itself and Productivity which argues that a finite number of units can be used to create an infinite number of utterances, (Roitblat, Herman, & Nachtigall, 1993).
Research with apes, like that of Francine Patterson with Koko or Herbert Terrace with Nim Chimpsky, suggested that apes are capable of using language that meets some of these requirements. However, no experiment has shown a non-human being to be proficient in all of these areas, (Hayes, 1951).
In the wild chimpanzees have been seen "talking" to each other, when warning about approaching danger. For example, if one chimpanzee sees a snake, he makes a low, rumbling noise, signaling for all the other chimps to climb into nearby trees. In this case, the chimpanzees' communication is entirely contained to an observable event, demonstrating a lack of displacement.
Arbitrariness has been noted in meerkat calls; bee dances show elements of spatial displacement; and cultural transmission has possibly occurred between the celebrated bonobos Kanzi and Panbanisha.[However, these single features alone do not qualify such instances of communication as being true language (Kellogg, & Kellogg, 1933).
Pinker (1994) indicates that most animals, such as chickadees, bees’ bats, and other types of birds, are bounded animals. These animals cannot construct new messages. Their way of communication is either through calling or singing. Another example would be the honeybees. Honeybees communicate through dancing. It is evident to show that honeybees do have a discrete combinatorial system. Honeybees are able to put together different dances to convey a message but they are bounded. Animals that have discrete structures are bounded and those that are bounded are discrete.
A study was done on an African Grey parrot named Alex. He was taught many symbols, colors, and numbers. Alex did not have that intelligibility to construct long sentences. Alex had the same intelligence of that of a five year old human being. His level of intelligibility remained constant.
Rumbaugh (1980) and Goodall (1964) argue that there is a very good reason why animals cannot learn to talk as human beings do, that is, use words to express ideas. Most of the intelligent things animals do is a result of inheriting certain patterns of behaviour. This works in Special situations, but when you change the situation the animal usually does not know how to deal with it. The other reason animals behave "intelligently" is that they go through a trial-and-error method of learning. Neither of these two ways of "thinking" can ever lead to talking. Talking means the use of words as symbols. The word stands for an idea or a thing it is a symbol of it. And animals do not have the ability to deal with symbols. Their minds cannot use combinations of symbols the same way human beings do. When we study how a child learns to say "Mama", we can see how complicated learning to talk really is. First the baby learns to recognize mother by seeing her again and again. As soon as the child recognizes her, the mother keeps pointing to herself and saying "Mama" at the same time. Gradually the infant hears the sound "Mama". After a while, the baby remembers this sound, and now it understands the word "Mama". Later on, the child makes a connection between the appearance of mother and the sound "Mama", and it identifies her. Now the mother shows the child how to say the word with its mouth, The baby imitates her and reaches the stage of word formation. It keeps on trying to say the word until certain muscles begin to work. Finally the day comes when everything is ready for talking. The baby sees the mother, recognizes her, remembers the word, forms the word, starts the right muscles working, and says "Mama" and the language develop that way, (Herman & Forestell, 1985).
However, Language since the time it was invented, there is no existing record to date back the origin of language and has always been considered a unique human trait that sets us apart from the rest of the species. The majority of people have considered the word “language” as a mere shorthand for human language, or more explicitly “adult human language. However, there has been a popular, a rather radical disagreement about the specificity of language. Quite a number of researchers and scholars have conducted experiments and studies to prove or disapprove the much contested debate on language. One would present several arguments that would support the Orthodox belief that language is one of the main hallmarks that distinguishes humans from animals.
If language is defined as “a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used by an individual or a group to interact and communicate,” it is clear that the human language has a lot of features or several properties of language that generally cannot be found in animal communication. First is arbitrariness, if language therefore is arbitrary, as popularly explained by Saussure, there is no connection between the linguistic form and the meaning. Almost all the words we used do not posses an obvious relationship between their sound/sign and their meaning except perhaps for onomatopoeic expressions. Let us take for example the word phone. There is nothing “phony” about a phone. Several research observations proved that non human communication system is quite different from human language. The latter is undeniably infinite while the former is limited to a series of sounds or movements that convey a target meaning. The sounds they make could mean that they sense danger, hunger, or for the purpose of attracting the opposite sex as a possible mate. On the contrary, human language has no limit to the number of expressions or words and even until now in our modern era, humans are continually inventing and reinventing the way they communicate, (Herman & Forestell, 1985).
As mentioned above, language is a series of vocal symbols. In the history of humankind, we are probably the only specie that spends most of its time talking. Though we cannot deny the existence of vocal communication among animals, it is but important to note that there is no more complex and composite as the human vocal symbols. Compared to animals, there exists a variation and inflection on the way we speak. Alterations are made depending on the situation or feeling of the speaker, (Herman & Forestell, 1985). We can modulate, change the tone or pitch, even the speed to suit our particular whim at a particular period or time. How about the animals that were claimed to have successfully learned not only to randomly imitate the exact sound of a human language but also to associate it with the corresponding meaning? Well, these experiments had been done in a uniform method that is “iteration” which involves repeating an action or object an arbitrary number of times. Classic example would be teaching a parrot to say “magandang umaga” everytime you open the door. It’s just as good as a simple conditioning (Pavlov: dogs salivating at the sound of the bell). The question is do they understand what they’re doing? Those animals (usually chimpz) that were able to develop or acquire such vocal skills are nonetheless special cases. However, comparing them to the development of a human child, it is quite apparent that human has the more innate ability to naturally acquire the faculty of language in or out of a controlled environment (Herman & Forestell, 1985).
Language for us is a means to effectively communicate and interact in our individual speech community. This is one trait that is analogous to most animal communities. Animals have displayed certain behaviors that are for the sole purpose of conveying messages or symbols to the other members of their pack, thus enabling them to survive. But this doesn’t prove that they have the ability to expand upon the grammatical rule in general sense or fully understand the changes in the meaning of the words. Humans are gifted with a unique imagination, manifesting itself even in language wherein we continually create new expressions (slang) and even hypothetical concepts (Santa Clause, Superman and the likes) which is absent in animals. This further proves that humans have a more conscious control over their faculty of language. It is conclusively more than a tool used for survival. Human language has and is constantly flowing and evolving parallel to the evolution of man.
There are many other arguments that would further support this views on the specificity of language to humans. However, I have just limited my points around the given and acknowledged meaning of language which I think is the most fundamental basis at which we can distinguish the big difference of human language and animal communication. It seems very unlikely for another species to learn or interpret signals or symbols of another (I have not yet heard of a chicken able to talk in “mutton”). I must say that the attention being given to the analysis of animal communication to classify it as a “true language” is but a biased effort of a number of researchers and an over interpretation of the similarities and shared pre-linguistic ability between some animals and humans.
In conclusion, it is clear that over a few million years the concept of communication has evolved to such a specific state that we now posses the ability to intelligently speak and interpret thoughts and feelings as well as manipulate the thoughts and feelings of others through words. Language is a service possessed only by human beings. Its purpose however, that of communication, is an activity in which all species engage. In some way, all creatures communicate, not by words or facial expressions, but in their own way these creatures convey their desires and emotions to other members of their species. The type of communication facilitated is species specific, such as language to humans and sonar to dolphins. Many people may not relate the concept of human language to animals but it is merely a qualitative difference between the two species. Evolutions do not result out of nothing, therefore human language had to evolve from some concept of communication. All species communicate but humans are the only species to do so through language. Creole languages form an unusually direct expression of a species specific biological characteristic, a capacity to recreate language in the absence of any specific model from which the properties of language could be ‘learned’ in the ways we normally learn things.
Bibliography
Bickerton, D. 1990. Lqanguage & species. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press,
Gardner, B.T., & Gardner, R.A. (1975). Evidence for sentence constituents in the early utterances of child and chimpanzee. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 104, 244-267.
Gardner R. Allen and Gardner Beatrice T. (1980) Comparative psychology and language acquisition. In Thomas A. Sebok and Jean-Umiker-Sebok (eds.): Speaking of Apes: A Critical Anthology of Two-Way Communication with Man. New York: Plenum Press, pp. 287-329.
Goodall, J. (1964). Tool Using and Aimed Throwing in a Community of Free-Living Chimpanzees, Nature, 201, 1264-1266.
Hayes, C. (1951). The Ape in Our House. New York: Harper & Row.
Herman, L. M. & Forestell, P. H. (1985). Reporting presence or absence of named objects by a language-trained dolphin. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 9, 667-691.
Kako, E. (1999). Elements of syntax in the systems of three language-trained animals. Animal Learning & Behavior, 27, 1-14.
Kellogg, W.N., & Kellogg, L.A. (1933). The ape and the child. New York: Whittlesey House (McGraw-Hill).
Patterson, F., and Linden, E. (1981) The Education of Koko. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Pinker, S. (1994). The language instinct: how the mind creates language. New York: William Morrow & Co.
Roitblat, H.R., Herman, L.M. & Nachtigall, P.E. (Eds.)(1993). Language and Communication: Comparative Perspectives, 299-308. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Rumbaugh Duane M. (1980) Language behavior of apes. In Thomas A. Sebok and Jean-Umiker-Sebok(eds.): Speaking of Apes: A Critical Anthology of Two- Way Communication with Man. New York: Plenum Press, pp. 231-259.
Sayigh, L.S., Tyack, P.L., Wells, R.S. & Scott, M.D. (1990). Signature whistles of free-ranging bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus): stability and mother-offspring comparisons. Behavioural Ecology and Sociobiology, 247-260.
The principle aim of this paper is to discuss the view that learning a language is species specific based on many arguments about the nature of learning a human language. The paper will take some cases of species or some animals specifically Washoe chimp and Nimchimpsky that had tried to learn a language and discuss the design features found in its language which are also found in the human language and pinpoint the design features that missed in its language that would make it disqualified as human language.
It is clear that language learning is species specific because the biological make up of different species is different. Humans cannot use or produce animal sounds thoroughly the way they do because their biological make up does not support certain sounds made by such animals. Equally some animals for example chimpanzees like Vick, Qua and others which tried to learn a human language could not manage because their biological make up is different to adequately support the human language in the same way humans use it. While its clear that most dominant living organisms like Birds, bees, bats, apes, worms, even humans have a communication system. Many animals use gestures, grunts, dances, whistles, or even cry to send a message to their other members. Humans have an unbounded discrete combinatorial system. Humans are able to take many morphemes, combine them together to make other meaningful words. Also, humans have rules and structures which enable them to make sentences. Many people may not relate the concept of human language to animals but it is merely a qualitative difference between the two species (Bickerton 1990).
Washoe chimp and Nimchimpsky tried to learn human languages alongside with others pecies. Washoe was trained in American Sign Language and showed the ability to make combinations of certain signs. She learned in ways she had never seen before. For example she combined the sign for "give me" with "tickle" to indicated she wanted to be tickled. Also, when encountering a monkey she disliked she signed "dirty" with "monkey" to express her disapproval of the other primate. The results were that Washoe could not learn successfully how to talk using human language but used sign language effectively to some extent. Nim Chimpsky, named after the great linguist Noam Chomsky, was the first chimpanzee to learn American sign language. Nim became famous, and was the subject of numerous books and television specials. But when the researchers had no more use for him, they opted to sell him to a hepatitis research lab, where he would have been the subject of painful experiments and eventually killed. Nim enjoyed looking at magazines, watching television, and putting on hats and shoes. The results on people’s attempts to teach monkeys intensively to learn human language failed.
After seriously lessons, animals failed to successfully learn a human language. The reasons for this failure is based on biological differences, it is clear that each species learns to communicate or a language of its own species. Thereby humans must learn a language communicated by fellow humans. Monkeys must learn a language communicated by fellow monkeys. Bees must learn the language communicated by fellow bees. This justifies the argument that language is species specific. Humans identify features that characterize their language and these features may not be found in the animals. However, the following properties of human language have been argued to separate it from animal communication: Arbitrariness which argues that there is no rational relationship between a sound or sign and its meaning. There is nothing intrinsically "housy" about the word "house" (Kako, 1999). Cultural transmissionarguing that Language is passed from one language user to the next, consciously or unconsciously. Discretenes says Language is composed of discrete units that are used in combination to create meaning. Displacement saying that Languages can be used to communicate ideas about things that are not in the immediate vicinity either spatially or temporally. Duality saying that Language works on two levels at once, a surface level and a semantic (meaningful) level. Metalinguistics showing the ability to discuss language itself and Productivity which argues that a finite number of units can be used to create an infinite number of utterances, (Roitblat, Herman, & Nachtigall, 1993).
Research with apes, like that of Francine Patterson with Koko or Herbert Terrace with Nim Chimpsky, suggested that apes are capable of using language that meets some of these requirements. However, no experiment has shown a non-human being to be proficient in all of these areas, (Hayes, 1951).
In the wild chimpanzees have been seen "talking" to each other, when warning about approaching danger. For example, if one chimpanzee sees a snake, he makes a low, rumbling noise, signaling for all the other chimps to climb into nearby trees. In this case, the chimpanzees' communication is entirely contained to an observable event, demonstrating a lack of displacement.
Arbitrariness has been noted in meerkat calls; bee dances show elements of spatial displacement; and cultural transmission has possibly occurred between the celebrated bonobos Kanzi and Panbanisha.[However, these single features alone do not qualify such instances of communication as being true language (Kellogg, & Kellogg, 1933).
Pinker (1994) indicates that most animals, such as chickadees, bees’ bats, and other types of birds, are bounded animals. These animals cannot construct new messages. Their way of communication is either through calling or singing. Another example would be the honeybees. Honeybees communicate through dancing. It is evident to show that honeybees do have a discrete combinatorial system. Honeybees are able to put together different dances to convey a message but they are bounded. Animals that have discrete structures are bounded and those that are bounded are discrete.
A study was done on an African Grey parrot named Alex. He was taught many symbols, colors, and numbers. Alex did not have that intelligibility to construct long sentences. Alex had the same intelligence of that of a five year old human being. His level of intelligibility remained constant.
Rumbaugh (1980) and Goodall (1964) argue that there is a very good reason why animals cannot learn to talk as human beings do, that is, use words to express ideas. Most of the intelligent things animals do is a result of inheriting certain patterns of behaviour. This works in Special situations, but when you change the situation the animal usually does not know how to deal with it. The other reason animals behave "intelligently" is that they go through a trial-and-error method of learning. Neither of these two ways of "thinking" can ever lead to talking. Talking means the use of words as symbols. The word stands for an idea or a thing it is a symbol of it. And animals do not have the ability to deal with symbols. Their minds cannot use combinations of symbols the same way human beings do. When we study how a child learns to say "Mama", we can see how complicated learning to talk really is. First the baby learns to recognize mother by seeing her again and again. As soon as the child recognizes her, the mother keeps pointing to herself and saying "Mama" at the same time. Gradually the infant hears the sound "Mama". After a while, the baby remembers this sound, and now it understands the word "Mama". Later on, the child makes a connection between the appearance of mother and the sound "Mama", and it identifies her. Now the mother shows the child how to say the word with its mouth, The baby imitates her and reaches the stage of word formation. It keeps on trying to say the word until certain muscles begin to work. Finally the day comes when everything is ready for talking. The baby sees the mother, recognizes her, remembers the word, forms the word, starts the right muscles working, and says "Mama" and the language develop that way, (Herman & Forestell, 1985).
However, Language since the time it was invented, there is no existing record to date back the origin of language and has always been considered a unique human trait that sets us apart from the rest of the species. The majority of people have considered the word “language” as a mere shorthand for human language, or more explicitly “adult human language. However, there has been a popular, a rather radical disagreement about the specificity of language. Quite a number of researchers and scholars have conducted experiments and studies to prove or disapprove the much contested debate on language. One would present several arguments that would support the Orthodox belief that language is one of the main hallmarks that distinguishes humans from animals.
If language is defined as “a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used by an individual or a group to interact and communicate,” it is clear that the human language has a lot of features or several properties of language that generally cannot be found in animal communication. First is arbitrariness, if language therefore is arbitrary, as popularly explained by Saussure, there is no connection between the linguistic form and the meaning. Almost all the words we used do not posses an obvious relationship between their sound/sign and their meaning except perhaps for onomatopoeic expressions. Let us take for example the word phone. There is nothing “phony” about a phone. Several research observations proved that non human communication system is quite different from human language. The latter is undeniably infinite while the former is limited to a series of sounds or movements that convey a target meaning. The sounds they make could mean that they sense danger, hunger, or for the purpose of attracting the opposite sex as a possible mate. On the contrary, human language has no limit to the number of expressions or words and even until now in our modern era, humans are continually inventing and reinventing the way they communicate, (Herman & Forestell, 1985).
As mentioned above, language is a series of vocal symbols. In the history of humankind, we are probably the only specie that spends most of its time talking. Though we cannot deny the existence of vocal communication among animals, it is but important to note that there is no more complex and composite as the human vocal symbols. Compared to animals, there exists a variation and inflection on the way we speak. Alterations are made depending on the situation or feeling of the speaker, (Herman & Forestell, 1985). We can modulate, change the tone or pitch, even the speed to suit our particular whim at a particular period or time. How about the animals that were claimed to have successfully learned not only to randomly imitate the exact sound of a human language but also to associate it with the corresponding meaning? Well, these experiments had been done in a uniform method that is “iteration” which involves repeating an action or object an arbitrary number of times. Classic example would be teaching a parrot to say “magandang umaga” everytime you open the door. It’s just as good as a simple conditioning (Pavlov: dogs salivating at the sound of the bell). The question is do they understand what they’re doing? Those animals (usually chimpz) that were able to develop or acquire such vocal skills are nonetheless special cases. However, comparing them to the development of a human child, it is quite apparent that human has the more innate ability to naturally acquire the faculty of language in or out of a controlled environment (Herman & Forestell, 1985).
Language for us is a means to effectively communicate and interact in our individual speech community. This is one trait that is analogous to most animal communities. Animals have displayed certain behaviors that are for the sole purpose of conveying messages or symbols to the other members of their pack, thus enabling them to survive. But this doesn’t prove that they have the ability to expand upon the grammatical rule in general sense or fully understand the changes in the meaning of the words. Humans are gifted with a unique imagination, manifesting itself even in language wherein we continually create new expressions (slang) and even hypothetical concepts (Santa Clause, Superman and the likes) which is absent in animals. This further proves that humans have a more conscious control over their faculty of language. It is conclusively more than a tool used for survival. Human language has and is constantly flowing and evolving parallel to the evolution of man.
There are many other arguments that would further support this views on the specificity of language to humans. However, I have just limited my points around the given and acknowledged meaning of language which I think is the most fundamental basis at which we can distinguish the big difference of human language and animal communication. It seems very unlikely for another species to learn or interpret signals or symbols of another (I have not yet heard of a chicken able to talk in “mutton”). I must say that the attention being given to the analysis of animal communication to classify it as a “true language” is but a biased effort of a number of researchers and an over interpretation of the similarities and shared pre-linguistic ability between some animals and humans.
In conclusion, it is clear that over a few million years the concept of communication has evolved to such a specific state that we now posses the ability to intelligently speak and interpret thoughts and feelings as well as manipulate the thoughts and feelings of others through words. Language is a service possessed only by human beings. Its purpose however, that of communication, is an activity in which all species engage. In some way, all creatures communicate, not by words or facial expressions, but in their own way these creatures convey their desires and emotions to other members of their species. The type of communication facilitated is species specific, such as language to humans and sonar to dolphins. Many people may not relate the concept of human language to animals but it is merely a qualitative difference between the two species. Evolutions do not result out of nothing, therefore human language had to evolve from some concept of communication. All species communicate but humans are the only species to do so through language. Creole languages form an unusually direct expression of a species specific biological characteristic, a capacity to recreate language in the absence of any specific model from which the properties of language could be ‘learned’ in the ways we normally learn things.
Bibliography
Bickerton, D. 1990. Lqanguage & species. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press,
Gardner, B.T., & Gardner, R.A. (1975). Evidence for sentence constituents in the early utterances of child and chimpanzee. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 104, 244-267.
Gardner R. Allen and Gardner Beatrice T. (1980) Comparative psychology and language acquisition. In Thomas A. Sebok and Jean-Umiker-Sebok (eds.): Speaking of Apes: A Critical Anthology of Two-Way Communication with Man. New York: Plenum Press, pp. 287-329.
Goodall, J. (1964). Tool Using and Aimed Throwing in a Community of Free-Living Chimpanzees, Nature, 201, 1264-1266.
Hayes, C. (1951). The Ape in Our House. New York: Harper & Row.
Herman, L. M. & Forestell, P. H. (1985). Reporting presence or absence of named objects by a language-trained dolphin. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 9, 667-691.
Kako, E. (1999). Elements of syntax in the systems of three language-trained animals. Animal Learning & Behavior, 27, 1-14.
Kellogg, W.N., & Kellogg, L.A. (1933). The ape and the child. New York: Whittlesey House (McGraw-Hill).
Patterson, F., and Linden, E. (1981) The Education of Koko. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Pinker, S. (1994). The language instinct: how the mind creates language. New York: William Morrow & Co.
Roitblat, H.R., Herman, L.M. & Nachtigall, P.E. (Eds.)(1993). Language and Communication: Comparative Perspectives, 299-308. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Rumbaugh Duane M. (1980) Language behavior of apes. In Thomas A. Sebok and Jean-Umiker-Sebok(eds.): Speaking of Apes: A Critical Anthology of Two- Way Communication with Man. New York: Plenum Press, pp. 231-259.
Sayigh, L.S., Tyack, P.L., Wells, R.S. & Scott, M.D. (1990). Signature whistles of free-ranging bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus): stability and mother-offspring comparisons. Behavioural Ecology and Sociobiology, 247-260.
READING IS A SELECTIVE PROCESS INVOLVING PARTIAL USE OF AVAILABLE MINIMAL LANGUAGE CUES SELECTED FROM THE PERCEPTUAL IMPUTE ON THE BASIS OF THE READER’S PERCEPTION
READING IS A SELECTIVE PROCESS INVOLVING PARTIAL USE OF AVAILABLE MINIMAL LANGUAGE CUES SELECTED FROM THE PERCEPTUAL IMPUTE ON THE BASIS OF THE READER’S PERCEPTION
The principle aim of this paper is to discuss the assertion by Goodman (1998) that “Reading is a selective process involving partial use of available minimal language cues selected from the perceptual impute on the basis of the reader’s perception”. The paper will start with a brief definition of key terms and then focus on the discussion in full with respect to the question.
Whilst it’s true that reading is a selective process involving partial use of available minimal language cues selected from the perceptual impute on the basis of the reader’s perception, it is clear that language involves signs manifested in the form of symbols and cues used for communication.
Daniel (2006: 6) indicates that language cues are signs that entice an individual to use language with objective based on aggregation with the intended audience. It is impossible for an individual to read effectives without utilization of symbols that lead to meaningful and coherent flow of content information. Language itself is “a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used by an individual or a group to interact and communicate,” (Crystal 1996). This definition entails that language uses symbols to be recognized and respective by the community. However, these symbols or cues has to be internalized by many and an individual in particular both in spoken and written. When reading such a text, the reader has to pay kin interest in distinguishing selective cues possible with respect to the universally acceptable cues. Therefore, reading is a selective process involving partial use of available minimal language cues selected from the perceptual impute on the basis of the reader’s perception.
Language cues can provide the glue that helps fasten certain visual patterns into small children's memories and adults especially when it comes to reading. According to Hopkins, Language Cues Provide 'Glue' For Visual Learning In Children in the sense that they guide them to see the insight of what follows the previous entity without much difficulties, (Science Daily, May 18, 2005). Language, in the form of specific kinds of sentences spoken aloud, helped the children remember the patterns by 'gluing' their properties into memory. Dessalegn said, "We knew going in that children are very poor at holding onto any visual memory of objects that involve 'handedness:' meaning, whether something is facing left or right. Our results show that this kind of visual memory can be made stronger if the children are given a language 'mnemonic' device, such as 'The red part is on the left,' to stick that image into their memories longer." For them to read such instances they use communicative language cues justifying the Goodman’s assertion that reading is a selective process involving partial use of available minimal language cues selected from the perceptual impute on the basis of the reader’s perception. However, a more elaborate example is that In their experiments with normal 4-year-old children, Dessalegn and Landau displayed language card cues bearing red and green vertical, horizontal and diagonal patterns that were mirror images of one another. Half of the children heard, "Look! This is a blicket!" as they viewed the cards, but the other half heard only, "Look!" The patterns then were whisked away and three more cards appeared, only one of which bore the original pattern the children had seen. Though the investigators found that both groups performed better than chance, those who did make errors committed the same one: mistaking the original card for its mirror image. "This showed us just how difficult it was for small children to commit both color and location to memory quickly," Landau said.
The second experiment examined whether giving the children a verbal cue that specifically labeled color and location would improve their performance. This time, when they saw the pattern cards, the children heard, "The red is on the left." This group performed "reliably better" than the first, said Landau.
Stanovich (2000:9) indicates that readers capacity to encode and decode the text require a lot of input and internalization from the available recognized symbols and textual cues present in the metal language of the reader. It would be very difficult for any individual to manifest fluency in speech and reading without a Meta language full of cues and code. This justifies Goodman’s (1998) assertion that reading is a selective process involving partial use of available minimal language cues selected from the perceptual impute on the basis of the reader’s perception. Reading fluency and cues in a language is improved in many ways as Pressley (1998) says "The improvement is most likely due to the presence of relational language, which serves as a mental pointer to an individual. The bottom line is that language can help, but it has to be language that is specific and helps an individual bridge the time gap between when they see or recognize a text at an encoding point and the time they make meaning decoding it.
Adams (1996) says reading is such a selective process that involves massive language cues selected from the known domain of their vocabulary. This basic description of perceptual impute on the basis of the reader’s perception has a strong bearing on the behavior and response of the reader between the initial point at which a cue is recognized and the reflexive point at which language is manifested as a complete fluent utterance of speech. This situation may be a little bit different depending on the age under consideration. For example, when children encounter an unfamiliar word in reading, they may make use of context cues, that is, information from pictures or from sentences surrounding the unknown word. One of the most misunderstood topics in reading instruction involves the extent to which children should be encouraged to rely on context cues in reading. In part, this confusion stems from the popularity in education of theoretical models of reading that do not reflect scientific evidence about how children learn to read. Another source of confusion is the failure to distinguish the use of context cues in word identification from the use of context in comprehension. In the case or Supposing a child is unable to read the last word of the sentence; he might look at the picture or think about the meaning of the sentence, perhaps in conjunction with the first letter or two of the word (p- or pa-), to come up with the correct word, pale. (For this strategy to work, the child also will need to have some oral familiarity with the word pale.) Although heavy reliance on context to aid word identification is common among unskilled readers both normally-achieving beginners and older struggling readers---it is ultimately undesirable, because the child is guessing rather than attending carefully to all the letters in the word. Of course, teachers certainly want children to monitor meaning consistently as they are reading. This monitoring may be evidenced by certain behaviors during oral reading of passages, as, for instance, when a youngster attempts to self-correct after substituting a contextually inappropriate word (e.g., pole or pal vs. pale in the sentence above. Children who do not appear to monitor their own comprehension while reading should clearly be encouraged to do so. However, any instructional strategy that, implicitly or explicitly, discourages careful attention to the entire sequence of letters in a word will be maladaptive for an alphabetic language like English, where every letter counts, and where learning new words is greatly facilitated by close attention to individual letters. The words pale, pole, and pile each differ in only one letter, but their meanings are entirely different.
David and Benson in their article “Language Markers in Reading” strongly argue that reader’s perception and fluency in a language is mainly determined by makers which acts as cues available for recipient design and proper understanding of the communicated message. They further argue that these markers help the reader or listener to know which points are more important than the others. They are also used to capture or draw the attention and concentration to the understanding of the message. It is believed that any good writer or speaker should posses the knowledge and skill of how to use markers. While this view may be a little bit divergent in nature with the introduction of the new term language markers in reading, it is extremely in line with Goodman’s assertion that reading is a selective process involving partial use of available minimal language cues selected from the perceptual impute on the basis of the reader’s perception.
Beers (2003) seem to disagree with Goodman’s assertion as he says scientific evidence strongly demonstrates that the development of skilled reading involves increasingly accurate and automatic word identification skills, not the use of "multiple cueing systems" to read words. Skilled readers do not need to rely on pictures or sentence context in word identification, because they can read most words automatically, and they have the phonics skills to decode occasional unknown words rapidly. Rather, it is the unskilled readers who tend to be dependent on context to compensate for poor word identification. Furthermore, many struggling readers are disposed to guess at words rather than to look carefully at them, a tendency that may be reinforced by frequent encouragement to use context. Almost every teacher of struggling readers has seen the common pattern in which a child who is trying to read a word (say, the word brown) gives the word only a cursory glance and then offers a series of wild guesses based on the first letter: "Black? Book? Box?" (The guesses are often accompanied by more attention to the expression on the face of the teacher than to the print, as the child waits for this expression to change to indicate a correct guess.) Even when children are able to use context to arrive at the correct word, reliance on context to compensate for inaccurate or non automatic word reading creates a drain on comprehension. This kind of compensation becomes increasingly problematic as children are expected to read more challenging texts that have few or no pictures, sophisticated vocabulary, and grammatically complex sentences.
It can be concluded that Goodman’s (1998) assertion that reading is a selective process involving partial use of available minimal language cues selected from the perceptual impute on the basis of the reader’s perception is justifiable as shown in the paper. However, some weaknesses also were spotted with regard different spheres. Specific activities that utilize logographic cues include: students making symbols within the margins of print text and worksheets that provide a pictorial summary of the information given and picture flash cards that foster vocabulary development are typical examples validating the connection between reading and language cues. Teaching methods employing logographic cues can help to encourage and increase word recognition, text reformulation and information organization. The method also helps to tap into the sensory stimulation that encodes information into long-term memory (LTM).
References
Beers, K. (2003). When Kids Can't Read What Teachers Can Do. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann,
Fukkink, R. G., & de Glopper, K. (1998). Effects of instruction in deriving word meaning from context: A meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 68, 450-469.
Jenkins, J. R., Matlock, B., & Slocum, T. A. (1989). Two approaches to vocabulary instruction: The teaching of individual word meanings and practice in deriving word meaning from context. Reading Research Quarterly, 24, 215-235.
Kajder, Sara. Bringing the Outside In: Visual Ways to Engage Reluctant Readers. Stenhouse Publishers, 2006.
Stanovich, K., & Stanovich, P. (1995). How research might inform the debate about early reading acquisition. Journal of Research in Reading,18, 87-105.
Science Daily, May 18, (2005). Language cues can provide the "glue" that helps fasten certain visual patterns into small children's memories.
Adams, M. J. (1998). The three-cueing system. In F. Lehr & J. Osborn (Eds.), Literacy for all: Issues in teaching and learning (pp. 73-99). New York: Guilford Press.
Pressley, M. (1998). Reading instruction that works: The case for balanced teaching. New York: Guilford.
Sheehy, Kieron. "The Effective Use of Symbols in Teaching Word Recognition to Children with Severe Learning Difficulties". International Journal of Disability, Development and Education 49 (2002): 47-59
Stanovich, K. E. (2000). Progress in understanding reading: Scientific foundations and new frontiers. New York: Guilford Press.
The principle aim of this paper is to discuss the assertion by Goodman (1998) that “Reading is a selective process involving partial use of available minimal language cues selected from the perceptual impute on the basis of the reader’s perception”. The paper will start with a brief definition of key terms and then focus on the discussion in full with respect to the question.
Whilst it’s true that reading is a selective process involving partial use of available minimal language cues selected from the perceptual impute on the basis of the reader’s perception, it is clear that language involves signs manifested in the form of symbols and cues used for communication.
Daniel (2006: 6) indicates that language cues are signs that entice an individual to use language with objective based on aggregation with the intended audience. It is impossible for an individual to read effectives without utilization of symbols that lead to meaningful and coherent flow of content information. Language itself is “a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used by an individual or a group to interact and communicate,” (Crystal 1996). This definition entails that language uses symbols to be recognized and respective by the community. However, these symbols or cues has to be internalized by many and an individual in particular both in spoken and written. When reading such a text, the reader has to pay kin interest in distinguishing selective cues possible with respect to the universally acceptable cues. Therefore, reading is a selective process involving partial use of available minimal language cues selected from the perceptual impute on the basis of the reader’s perception.
Language cues can provide the glue that helps fasten certain visual patterns into small children's memories and adults especially when it comes to reading. According to Hopkins, Language Cues Provide 'Glue' For Visual Learning In Children in the sense that they guide them to see the insight of what follows the previous entity without much difficulties, (Science Daily, May 18, 2005). Language, in the form of specific kinds of sentences spoken aloud, helped the children remember the patterns by 'gluing' their properties into memory. Dessalegn said, "We knew going in that children are very poor at holding onto any visual memory of objects that involve 'handedness:' meaning, whether something is facing left or right. Our results show that this kind of visual memory can be made stronger if the children are given a language 'mnemonic' device, such as 'The red part is on the left,' to stick that image into their memories longer." For them to read such instances they use communicative language cues justifying the Goodman’s assertion that reading is a selective process involving partial use of available minimal language cues selected from the perceptual impute on the basis of the reader’s perception. However, a more elaborate example is that In their experiments with normal 4-year-old children, Dessalegn and Landau displayed language card cues bearing red and green vertical, horizontal and diagonal patterns that were mirror images of one another. Half of the children heard, "Look! This is a blicket!" as they viewed the cards, but the other half heard only, "Look!" The patterns then were whisked away and three more cards appeared, only one of which bore the original pattern the children had seen. Though the investigators found that both groups performed better than chance, those who did make errors committed the same one: mistaking the original card for its mirror image. "This showed us just how difficult it was for small children to commit both color and location to memory quickly," Landau said.
The second experiment examined whether giving the children a verbal cue that specifically labeled color and location would improve their performance. This time, when they saw the pattern cards, the children heard, "The red is on the left." This group performed "reliably better" than the first, said Landau.
Stanovich (2000:9) indicates that readers capacity to encode and decode the text require a lot of input and internalization from the available recognized symbols and textual cues present in the metal language of the reader. It would be very difficult for any individual to manifest fluency in speech and reading without a Meta language full of cues and code. This justifies Goodman’s (1998) assertion that reading is a selective process involving partial use of available minimal language cues selected from the perceptual impute on the basis of the reader’s perception. Reading fluency and cues in a language is improved in many ways as Pressley (1998) says "The improvement is most likely due to the presence of relational language, which serves as a mental pointer to an individual. The bottom line is that language can help, but it has to be language that is specific and helps an individual bridge the time gap between when they see or recognize a text at an encoding point and the time they make meaning decoding it.
Adams (1996) says reading is such a selective process that involves massive language cues selected from the known domain of their vocabulary. This basic description of perceptual impute on the basis of the reader’s perception has a strong bearing on the behavior and response of the reader between the initial point at which a cue is recognized and the reflexive point at which language is manifested as a complete fluent utterance of speech. This situation may be a little bit different depending on the age under consideration. For example, when children encounter an unfamiliar word in reading, they may make use of context cues, that is, information from pictures or from sentences surrounding the unknown word. One of the most misunderstood topics in reading instruction involves the extent to which children should be encouraged to rely on context cues in reading. In part, this confusion stems from the popularity in education of theoretical models of reading that do not reflect scientific evidence about how children learn to read. Another source of confusion is the failure to distinguish the use of context cues in word identification from the use of context in comprehension. In the case or Supposing a child is unable to read the last word of the sentence; he might look at the picture or think about the meaning of the sentence, perhaps in conjunction with the first letter or two of the word (p- or pa-), to come up with the correct word, pale. (For this strategy to work, the child also will need to have some oral familiarity with the word pale.) Although heavy reliance on context to aid word identification is common among unskilled readers both normally-achieving beginners and older struggling readers---it is ultimately undesirable, because the child is guessing rather than attending carefully to all the letters in the word. Of course, teachers certainly want children to monitor meaning consistently as they are reading. This monitoring may be evidenced by certain behaviors during oral reading of passages, as, for instance, when a youngster attempts to self-correct after substituting a contextually inappropriate word (e.g., pole or pal vs. pale in the sentence above. Children who do not appear to monitor their own comprehension while reading should clearly be encouraged to do so. However, any instructional strategy that, implicitly or explicitly, discourages careful attention to the entire sequence of letters in a word will be maladaptive for an alphabetic language like English, where every letter counts, and where learning new words is greatly facilitated by close attention to individual letters. The words pale, pole, and pile each differ in only one letter, but their meanings are entirely different.
David and Benson in their article “Language Markers in Reading” strongly argue that reader’s perception and fluency in a language is mainly determined by makers which acts as cues available for recipient design and proper understanding of the communicated message. They further argue that these markers help the reader or listener to know which points are more important than the others. They are also used to capture or draw the attention and concentration to the understanding of the message. It is believed that any good writer or speaker should posses the knowledge and skill of how to use markers. While this view may be a little bit divergent in nature with the introduction of the new term language markers in reading, it is extremely in line with Goodman’s assertion that reading is a selective process involving partial use of available minimal language cues selected from the perceptual impute on the basis of the reader’s perception.
Beers (2003) seem to disagree with Goodman’s assertion as he says scientific evidence strongly demonstrates that the development of skilled reading involves increasingly accurate and automatic word identification skills, not the use of "multiple cueing systems" to read words. Skilled readers do not need to rely on pictures or sentence context in word identification, because they can read most words automatically, and they have the phonics skills to decode occasional unknown words rapidly. Rather, it is the unskilled readers who tend to be dependent on context to compensate for poor word identification. Furthermore, many struggling readers are disposed to guess at words rather than to look carefully at them, a tendency that may be reinforced by frequent encouragement to use context. Almost every teacher of struggling readers has seen the common pattern in which a child who is trying to read a word (say, the word brown) gives the word only a cursory glance and then offers a series of wild guesses based on the first letter: "Black? Book? Box?" (The guesses are often accompanied by more attention to the expression on the face of the teacher than to the print, as the child waits for this expression to change to indicate a correct guess.) Even when children are able to use context to arrive at the correct word, reliance on context to compensate for inaccurate or non automatic word reading creates a drain on comprehension. This kind of compensation becomes increasingly problematic as children are expected to read more challenging texts that have few or no pictures, sophisticated vocabulary, and grammatically complex sentences.
It can be concluded that Goodman’s (1998) assertion that reading is a selective process involving partial use of available minimal language cues selected from the perceptual impute on the basis of the reader’s perception is justifiable as shown in the paper. However, some weaknesses also were spotted with regard different spheres. Specific activities that utilize logographic cues include: students making symbols within the margins of print text and worksheets that provide a pictorial summary of the information given and picture flash cards that foster vocabulary development are typical examples validating the connection between reading and language cues. Teaching methods employing logographic cues can help to encourage and increase word recognition, text reformulation and information organization. The method also helps to tap into the sensory stimulation that encodes information into long-term memory (LTM).
References
Beers, K. (2003). When Kids Can't Read What Teachers Can Do. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann,
Fukkink, R. G., & de Glopper, K. (1998). Effects of instruction in deriving word meaning from context: A meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 68, 450-469.
Jenkins, J. R., Matlock, B., & Slocum, T. A. (1989). Two approaches to vocabulary instruction: The teaching of individual word meanings and practice in deriving word meaning from context. Reading Research Quarterly, 24, 215-235.
Kajder, Sara. Bringing the Outside In: Visual Ways to Engage Reluctant Readers. Stenhouse Publishers, 2006.
Stanovich, K., & Stanovich, P. (1995). How research might inform the debate about early reading acquisition. Journal of Research in Reading,18, 87-105.
Science Daily, May 18, (2005). Language cues can provide the "glue" that helps fasten certain visual patterns into small children's memories.
Adams, M. J. (1998). The three-cueing system. In F. Lehr & J. Osborn (Eds.), Literacy for all: Issues in teaching and learning (pp. 73-99). New York: Guilford Press.
Pressley, M. (1998). Reading instruction that works: The case for balanced teaching. New York: Guilford.
Sheehy, Kieron. "The Effective Use of Symbols in Teaching Word Recognition to Children with Severe Learning Difficulties". International Journal of Disability, Development and Education 49 (2002): 47-59
Stanovich, K. E. (2000). Progress in understanding reading: Scientific foundations and new frontiers. New York: Guilford Press.
Democracy and good governance is dependent on political parties, media and civil society
Democracy and good governance is dependent on political parties, media and civil society
No man is good enough to govern another man without that other's consent. The other part has to decide and agree to be ruled by the other and this is what is said to be governed. Governance and democracy require that the majority decide what they need to be, who to do what they need and not the minority, Lincoln (1994).
This paper attempts to discuss the assertion that the issue of democracy and good governance is dependent on political parties, media and civil society. The paper will start with brief definitions of key terms and then establish its position with examples drawn from the Zambian situation.
The issue of democracy and good governance is crucial as far as running the affairs of a particular country is concerned. It cannot be subjected to political parties, media and civil society alone but it is vaster than mare political enchantments, media or civil society scams from certain individuals in the community. This view of perceiving the scope and boundaries of democracy and good governance is backed up by a number of scholars. For example, Lincoln (1994:83) says “Democracy and governance are influenced by many factors in the society ranging from political, social, economic and cultural…. These factors are at the core centre of democracy, rule of law and good governance in a particular country”.
While it’s true that the issue of democracy and good governance is dependent on political parties, media and civil society, there are many other factors that influence the course of democracy and good governance in a particular society. For example, the activism and radicalism of citizens in a county or speech community can be one of the beacons on which democracy and good governance lies. In a community where citizens are so critical, ready to die for their rights and violate in an attempt to bring peace and justice to their fellow citizens, democracy and good governance may not be entirely dependent on political parties, media and civil society. The concepts democracy and governance are relative terms driven by the people especially those with authority and power. Individuals who are said to have authority and power, normally political leaders have a lot of influence in their immediate environments as they control the political system of a particular country, media and civil society through their machinery system. Therefore, if those in authority and power control the affairs of a particular community, it would be prudent to argue that the issue of democracy and good governance is dependent on political parties, media and civil society because all these units of the society are controlled by the same forces.
Democracy and good governance are dependent on political parties in the sense that the people in power, those running the government or those identified as leaders in certain political parties has a lot of influence in the different domains of the society: the market, school, civil service, hospitals, churches and on other groupings. In ordinary times, when we speak of a democracy, we mean a country. In a democratic country, the people choose how they will be governed. Most of the time, they do this by electing leaders who run the government. However, there is more than one type of democracy. In a pure democracy, elected leaders simply carry out the wishes of the voters. But this is not easy to do. Voters must get together often to tell elected leaders what they want. They must take part in many, many decisions, (Encarta, 2009). Most democratic countries are republics, not pure democracies. In a republic, elected leaders are supposed to do what they think is best. Then, if the voters don’t like it, they can elect new leaders.
Democracy and good governance are dependent on political parties because they are naturally oriented to a political system in which the people of a country rule through any form of government they choose to establish. In modern democracies, supreme authority is exercised for the most part by representatives elected by popular suffrage. The representatives may be supplanted by the electorate according to the legal procedures of recall and referendum, and they are, at least in principle, responsible to the electorate. In many republic countries like Zambia, the executive head of government is elected while the others like the legislature are just appointed by the government. It’s important here to note that the term democracy may involve systems of delegating the power to govern to their elected representatives. In a republic, however, these officials are expected to act on their own best judgment of the needs and interests of the country. The officials in a democracy more generally and directly reflect the known or ascertained views of their constituents, sometimes subordinating their own judgment
Democracy and good governance refer to the state of being based on the concept that sovereignty resides in the people, who delegate the power to rule in their behalf to elected representatives and officials. In the case of Zambia and in practice, however, this concept has been variously stretched, distorted, and corrupted, making any precise definition of the term republic difficult. It is important, to begin with, to distinguish between a republic and a democracy. In the theoretical republican state, where the government expresses the will of the people who have chosen it, republic and democracy may be identical. Democracy and good governance are dependent on political parties as they influence how to determine the means and ways of empowering the Zambian citizenry in coping with the new democratic dispensation. It tends to assist the development of democratic process in Zambia as well as promote Justice. This is done through increasing and creating awareness amongst citizens about their duties and responsibilities under the Constitution. Under democracy and good governance it is believed that in the execution of duties and responsibilities that bestow rights, privileges and equality for all before the Law by those put in power is the only way of running a peaceful nation.
It is also true that the issue of democracy and good governance is heavily dependent on the media. Media in this context refers to television, newspapers, and radio collectively. It is also referring to the various means of mass communication considered as a whole, including television, radio, magazines, and newspapers, together with the people involved in their productions. Since the media is used to communicate, inform and edutain people in the various domains of life, it plays a critical role in the in addressing the issue of democracy and good governance.
The power that lies in media has great influence in determining the course of democracy and good governance in a country. The media informs people on the ideals and ideologies of democracy and good governance. It enlightens people to respect the trends and tenets of good governance. While it is true that without media, people would not know what is going on around them, people also need to acknowledge the presence of other factors on which democracy is dependent on. Through the media, Journalism, gathering, evaluating, and distributing facts of current interest and what is going on within the country would strengthen the stance and power of democracy and good governance. In journalism, reporters research and write stories for print and electronic distribution, often with the guidance of editors or producers. The earliest journalists produced their stories for news sheets, circulars, newspapers, and periodicals. With technological advances, journalism came to include other media, such as radio, documentary or newsreel films, television, and the Internet with a view sensitizing citizens on what is happening in the immediate communities.
In Zambia, the media include newspapers like the post newspaper, Guardian angel, Global, Times and daily mail. It also includes radios, televisions and internet available to provide the ideals and principles of democracy, good governance where it exist. Largely for economic reasons, including competition from television, radio and the number of local daily newspapers in Zambia has increased in number from a few to so many. A major trend affecting newspapers in todays world in Zambia is their incorporation into newspaper chains—ownership of a number of newspapers by a single company. By 2000 only about less than ten cities in Zambia had separately owned competing newspapers. The major radio and television stations, even when independently owned, have become affiliated with networks that provide much of their news and other program materials that oriented towards democracy and good governance.
In Zambia, it is clear that the issue of democracy and good governance is dependent partly on the media and with what is portrayed to the society. The media in Zambia has been manifested in so many forms. For instance, new technologies continue to bring about changes in journalism. Television satellites, for example, enable viewers in one part of the world to witness live events occurring in another and facilitate new forms of video news distribution. Reporters can summon from data banks information that previously would have taken them days or weeks to assemble. Wire-service copy can be set in type automatically at a subscribing newspaper without the services of a local editor or printer. The bottom line is that all these media houses are there to communicate to the masses the information or news needed. Lincoln, (1994) says the aim of these media houses is to have a nation where people’s rights are respected and upheld by all in a democratic way. In line with this, some media houses in Zambia provides free legal advice, information dissemination and awareness raising on children’s rights and child related legislations. Free legal advice is provided to the indigent but especially children who need legal assistance. Information dissemination is provided to communities and law enforcement officers such as police officers, labour officers and social welfare officers. Media houses also raises awareness and provides materials on people’s rights and child related legislations to the public. The media aims to contribute to a campaign aimed at lobbying for legal prohibition of corporal, humiliating and degrading punishment of children in all settings including the home and to promote positive disciplining of people. Therefore, the issue of democracy and good governance is dependent on the media.
In Zambia, the issue of democracy and good governance is also dependent on civil society. Ideally, civil society refers to groupings comprising the ideals of ordinary citizens comprising workers and non workers. It is relating to what happens within a state or between different citizens or groups of citizens. Therefore, the manner in which citizens react to facts, ideals and issues surrounding them will also determine the course of democracy and good governance in that way. In Zambia, the issue of democracy and good governance is also dependent on civil society as leaders at times act to respect the needs and aspirations of the citizens, Lincoln, (1994).
It is evident that the issue of democracy and good governance is heavily dependent on civil society. For Zambia, the civil society is exposed to civic knowledge which is concerned with the content or what citizens ought to know. It is important that everyone has an opportunity to consider the essential questions about government and civil society that continue to challenge thoughtful people. People are made to understand exactly what civic life, politics, and government is Farkins (2008), NAEP (1998). This helps citizens make informed judgments about the nature of civic life, politics, and government, and why politics and government are necessary; the purposes of government; the essential characteristics of limited and unlimited government; the nature and purposes of constitutions, and alternative ways of organizing constitutional governments. Consideration of this question should promote greater understanding of the nature and importance of civil society or the complex network of freely formed, voluntary political, social, and economic associations which is an essential component of a constitutional democracy. A vital civil society not only prevents the abuse or excessive concentration of power by government; the organizations of civil society serve as public laboratories in which citizens learn democracy by doing it. Knowledge of the ideals, values, and principles set forth in the nation's core documents serves an additional and useful purpose. Those ideals, values, and principles are criteria which citizens can use to judge the means and ends of government, as well as the means and ends of the myriad groups that are part of civil society. This also helps citizens understand and evaluate the limited government they have ordained and established and the complex dispersal and sharing of powers it entails. Citizens who understand the justification for this system of limited, dispersed, and shared power and its design are better able to hold their governments-local, state, and national-accountable and to ensure that the rights of individuals are protected. They also will develop a considered appreciation of the place of law in the Zambian political system, as well as of the unparalleled opportunities for choice and citizen participation that the system makes possible.
The issue of democracy and good governance is also dependent on civil society because they determine the roles of citizens in Zambian democracy and this is of particular importance. Citizenship in a constitutional democracy means that each citizen is a full and equal member of a self governing community and is endowed with fundamental rights and entrusted with responsibilities. Citizens should understand that through their involvement in political life and in civil society, they can help to improve the quality of life in their neighborhoods, communities, and nation. If they want their voices to be heard, they must become active participants in the political process. Although elections, campaigns, and voting are central to democratic institutions, citizens should learn that beyond electoral politics many participatory opportunities are open to them. Finally, they should come to understand that the attainment of individual goals and public goals tend to go hand in hand with participation in political life and civil society. They are more likely to achieve personal goals for themselves and their families, as well as the goals they desire for their communities, state, and nation, if they are informed, effective, and responsible citizens, Lincoln, (1994).
The issue of democracy and good governance is dependent on civil society in the sense that if citizens are to exercise their rights and discharge their responsibilities as members of self-governing communities in Zambia, they not only need to acquire a body of knowledge such as that embodied in the five organizing questions just described; they also need to acquire relevant intellectual and participatory skills. Intellectual skills in civics and government are inseparable from content, NAEP (1998).
To be able to think critically about a political issue, for example, one must have an understanding of the issue, its history, its contemporary relevance, as well as command of a set of intellectual tools or considerations useful in dealing with such an issue.
The intellectual skills essential for informed, effective, and responsible citizenship sometimes are called critical thinking skills. National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) categorize these skills as identifying and describing; explaining and analyzing; and evaluating, taking, and defending positions on public issues. A good civic education enables one to identify or give the meaning or significance of things that are tangible such as the flag, national monuments, or civic and political events. It also enables one to give the meaning or significance of intangibles, such as ideas or concepts including patriotism, majority and minority rights, civil society, and constitutionalism. The ability to identify emotional language and symbols is of particular importance for citizens. They need to be able to discern the true purposes for which emotive language and symbols are being employed. Another intellectual skill which good civic education fosters is that of describing. The ability to describe functions and processes such as legislative checks and balances or judicial review is indicative of understanding. Discerning and describing trends, such as participation in civic life, immigration, or employment helps the citizen fit current events into a longer term pattern.
Democracy and good governance in good civic education seeks to develop competence in explaining and analyzing. If citizens can explain how something should work, they will be more able to detect and help correct malfunctions. Citizens also need to be able to analyze such things as the components and consequences of ideas, social, political, or economic processes, and institutions. The ability to analyze enables one to distinguish between fact and opinion or between means and ends. It also helps the citizen to clarify responsibilities such as those between personal and public responsibilities or those between elected or appointed officials and citizens. In a self-governing society citizens are decision-makers. They need, therefore, to develop and continue to improve their skills of evaluating, taking, and defending positions. These skills are essential if citizens are to assess issues on the public agenda, to make judgments about issues and to discuss their assessment with others in public or private, Farkins (2008).
Farkins (2008) says the acquisition of knowledge and intellectual skills, education for citizenship in a democratic society must focus on skills that are required for informed, effective, and responsible participation in the political process and in civil society. Those skills can be categorized as interacting, monitoring, and influencing. Interacting pertains to the skills citizens need to communicate and to work cooperatively with others. To interact is to be responsive to one's fellow citizens. To interact is to question, to answer, and to deliberate with civility, as well as to build coalitions and to manage conflict in a fair, peaceful manner. Monitoring politics and government refers to the skills citizens need to track the handling of issues by the political process and by government. Monitoring also means the exercising of oversight or "watchdog" functions on the part of citizens. Finally, the participatory skill of influencing refers to the capacity to affect the processes of politics and governance, both the formal and the informal processes of governance in the community.
The issue of democracy and good governance is dependent on civil society which is related to civic dispositions, referring to the traits of private and public character essential to the maintenance and improvement of constitutional democracy. civil society, like civic skills, develop slowly over time and as a result of what one learns and experiences in the home, school, community, and organizations of civil society. Those experiences should engender understanding that democracy requires the responsible self governance of each individual; one cannot exist without the other. Traits of private character such as moral responsibility, self discipline, and respect for the worth and human dignity of every individual are imperative. Traits of public character are no less consequential. Such traits as public spiritedness, civility, respect for the rule of law, critical mindedness, and willingness to listen, negotiate, and compromise are indispensable to democracy's success. Civic dispositions that contribute to the political efficacy of the individual, the healthy functioning of the political system, a sense of dignity and worth, and the common good were identified in the National Standards for Civics and Government. In the interest of brevity, those dispositions or traits of private and public character might be described as:
Becoming an independent member of society. This disposition encompasses adhering voluntarily to self-imposed standards of behavior rather than requiring the imposition of external controls, accepting responsibility for the consequences of one's actions and fulfilling the moral and legal obligations of membership in a democratic society. Assuming the personal, political, and economic responsibilities of a citizen. These responsibilities include taking care of one's self, supporting one's family and caring for, nurturing, and educating one's children. They also include being informed about public issues, voting, paying taxes, serving on juries, performing public service, and serving in leadership positions commensurate with one's talents. Respecting individual worth and human dignity. Respecting others means listening to their opinions, behaving in a civil manner, considering the rights and interests of fellow citizens, and adhering to the principle of majority rule but recognizing the right of the minority to dissent. Participating in civic affairs in a thoughtful and effective manner. This disposition entails becoming informed prior to voting or participating in public debate, engaging in civil and reflective discourse, and assuming leadership when appropriate. It also entails evaluating whether and when one's obligations as a citizen require that personal desires and interests be subordinated to the public good and evaluating whether and when one's obligations or constitutional principles obligate one to reject certain civic expectations. Promoting the healthy functioning of constitutional democracy. This disposition encompasses being informed and attentive to public affairs, learning about and deliberating on constitutional values and principles, monitoring the adherence of political leaders and public agencies to those values and principles and taking appropriate action if adherence is lacking. This disposition also inclines the citizen to work through peaceful, legal means to change laws that are thought to be unwise or unjust, NAEP (1998).
It can be concluded that the issue of democracy and good governance is dependent on political parties, media and civil society as shown in the paper. The paper has also made references to the Zambian situation reciting specific instances. It should noted here that the issue of democracy and good governance is critical in the lives of citizens. Liberty lies in the hearts of men and women; when it dies there, no constitution, no law, no court can save it; no constitution, no law, no court can even do much to help it. While it lies there, it needs no constitution, no law, no court to save it.
REFERENCES
Farkins (2008) Governanace in Africa. Pretoria: South Africa.
Lincoln, D. (1994). The Role of Democracy and Good Governance. USA: Brookslin.
NAEP (1998). The National Standards for Civics and Government and the Civics Framework for the 1998 National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP).
Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2009. © 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation.
No man is good enough to govern another man without that other's consent. The other part has to decide and agree to be ruled by the other and this is what is said to be governed. Governance and democracy require that the majority decide what they need to be, who to do what they need and not the minority, Lincoln (1994).
This paper attempts to discuss the assertion that the issue of democracy and good governance is dependent on political parties, media and civil society. The paper will start with brief definitions of key terms and then establish its position with examples drawn from the Zambian situation.
The issue of democracy and good governance is crucial as far as running the affairs of a particular country is concerned. It cannot be subjected to political parties, media and civil society alone but it is vaster than mare political enchantments, media or civil society scams from certain individuals in the community. This view of perceiving the scope and boundaries of democracy and good governance is backed up by a number of scholars. For example, Lincoln (1994:83) says “Democracy and governance are influenced by many factors in the society ranging from political, social, economic and cultural…. These factors are at the core centre of democracy, rule of law and good governance in a particular country”.
While it’s true that the issue of democracy and good governance is dependent on political parties, media and civil society, there are many other factors that influence the course of democracy and good governance in a particular society. For example, the activism and radicalism of citizens in a county or speech community can be one of the beacons on which democracy and good governance lies. In a community where citizens are so critical, ready to die for their rights and violate in an attempt to bring peace and justice to their fellow citizens, democracy and good governance may not be entirely dependent on political parties, media and civil society. The concepts democracy and governance are relative terms driven by the people especially those with authority and power. Individuals who are said to have authority and power, normally political leaders have a lot of influence in their immediate environments as they control the political system of a particular country, media and civil society through their machinery system. Therefore, if those in authority and power control the affairs of a particular community, it would be prudent to argue that the issue of democracy and good governance is dependent on political parties, media and civil society because all these units of the society are controlled by the same forces.
Democracy and good governance are dependent on political parties in the sense that the people in power, those running the government or those identified as leaders in certain political parties has a lot of influence in the different domains of the society: the market, school, civil service, hospitals, churches and on other groupings. In ordinary times, when we speak of a democracy, we mean a country. In a democratic country, the people choose how they will be governed. Most of the time, they do this by electing leaders who run the government. However, there is more than one type of democracy. In a pure democracy, elected leaders simply carry out the wishes of the voters. But this is not easy to do. Voters must get together often to tell elected leaders what they want. They must take part in many, many decisions, (Encarta, 2009). Most democratic countries are republics, not pure democracies. In a republic, elected leaders are supposed to do what they think is best. Then, if the voters don’t like it, they can elect new leaders.
Democracy and good governance are dependent on political parties because they are naturally oriented to a political system in which the people of a country rule through any form of government they choose to establish. In modern democracies, supreme authority is exercised for the most part by representatives elected by popular suffrage. The representatives may be supplanted by the electorate according to the legal procedures of recall and referendum, and they are, at least in principle, responsible to the electorate. In many republic countries like Zambia, the executive head of government is elected while the others like the legislature are just appointed by the government. It’s important here to note that the term democracy may involve systems of delegating the power to govern to their elected representatives. In a republic, however, these officials are expected to act on their own best judgment of the needs and interests of the country. The officials in a democracy more generally and directly reflect the known or ascertained views of their constituents, sometimes subordinating their own judgment
Democracy and good governance refer to the state of being based on the concept that sovereignty resides in the people, who delegate the power to rule in their behalf to elected representatives and officials. In the case of Zambia and in practice, however, this concept has been variously stretched, distorted, and corrupted, making any precise definition of the term republic difficult. It is important, to begin with, to distinguish between a republic and a democracy. In the theoretical republican state, where the government expresses the will of the people who have chosen it, republic and democracy may be identical. Democracy and good governance are dependent on political parties as they influence how to determine the means and ways of empowering the Zambian citizenry in coping with the new democratic dispensation. It tends to assist the development of democratic process in Zambia as well as promote Justice. This is done through increasing and creating awareness amongst citizens about their duties and responsibilities under the Constitution. Under democracy and good governance it is believed that in the execution of duties and responsibilities that bestow rights, privileges and equality for all before the Law by those put in power is the only way of running a peaceful nation.
It is also true that the issue of democracy and good governance is heavily dependent on the media. Media in this context refers to television, newspapers, and radio collectively. It is also referring to the various means of mass communication considered as a whole, including television, radio, magazines, and newspapers, together with the people involved in their productions. Since the media is used to communicate, inform and edutain people in the various domains of life, it plays a critical role in the in addressing the issue of democracy and good governance.
The power that lies in media has great influence in determining the course of democracy and good governance in a country. The media informs people on the ideals and ideologies of democracy and good governance. It enlightens people to respect the trends and tenets of good governance. While it is true that without media, people would not know what is going on around them, people also need to acknowledge the presence of other factors on which democracy is dependent on. Through the media, Journalism, gathering, evaluating, and distributing facts of current interest and what is going on within the country would strengthen the stance and power of democracy and good governance. In journalism, reporters research and write stories for print and electronic distribution, often with the guidance of editors or producers. The earliest journalists produced their stories for news sheets, circulars, newspapers, and periodicals. With technological advances, journalism came to include other media, such as radio, documentary or newsreel films, television, and the Internet with a view sensitizing citizens on what is happening in the immediate communities.
In Zambia, the media include newspapers like the post newspaper, Guardian angel, Global, Times and daily mail. It also includes radios, televisions and internet available to provide the ideals and principles of democracy, good governance where it exist. Largely for economic reasons, including competition from television, radio and the number of local daily newspapers in Zambia has increased in number from a few to so many. A major trend affecting newspapers in todays world in Zambia is their incorporation into newspaper chains—ownership of a number of newspapers by a single company. By 2000 only about less than ten cities in Zambia had separately owned competing newspapers. The major radio and television stations, even when independently owned, have become affiliated with networks that provide much of their news and other program materials that oriented towards democracy and good governance.
In Zambia, it is clear that the issue of democracy and good governance is dependent partly on the media and with what is portrayed to the society. The media in Zambia has been manifested in so many forms. For instance, new technologies continue to bring about changes in journalism. Television satellites, for example, enable viewers in one part of the world to witness live events occurring in another and facilitate new forms of video news distribution. Reporters can summon from data banks information that previously would have taken them days or weeks to assemble. Wire-service copy can be set in type automatically at a subscribing newspaper without the services of a local editor or printer. The bottom line is that all these media houses are there to communicate to the masses the information or news needed. Lincoln, (1994) says the aim of these media houses is to have a nation where people’s rights are respected and upheld by all in a democratic way. In line with this, some media houses in Zambia provides free legal advice, information dissemination and awareness raising on children’s rights and child related legislations. Free legal advice is provided to the indigent but especially children who need legal assistance. Information dissemination is provided to communities and law enforcement officers such as police officers, labour officers and social welfare officers. Media houses also raises awareness and provides materials on people’s rights and child related legislations to the public. The media aims to contribute to a campaign aimed at lobbying for legal prohibition of corporal, humiliating and degrading punishment of children in all settings including the home and to promote positive disciplining of people. Therefore, the issue of democracy and good governance is dependent on the media.
In Zambia, the issue of democracy and good governance is also dependent on civil society. Ideally, civil society refers to groupings comprising the ideals of ordinary citizens comprising workers and non workers. It is relating to what happens within a state or between different citizens or groups of citizens. Therefore, the manner in which citizens react to facts, ideals and issues surrounding them will also determine the course of democracy and good governance in that way. In Zambia, the issue of democracy and good governance is also dependent on civil society as leaders at times act to respect the needs and aspirations of the citizens, Lincoln, (1994).
It is evident that the issue of democracy and good governance is heavily dependent on civil society. For Zambia, the civil society is exposed to civic knowledge which is concerned with the content or what citizens ought to know. It is important that everyone has an opportunity to consider the essential questions about government and civil society that continue to challenge thoughtful people. People are made to understand exactly what civic life, politics, and government is Farkins (2008), NAEP (1998). This helps citizens make informed judgments about the nature of civic life, politics, and government, and why politics and government are necessary; the purposes of government; the essential characteristics of limited and unlimited government; the nature and purposes of constitutions, and alternative ways of organizing constitutional governments. Consideration of this question should promote greater understanding of the nature and importance of civil society or the complex network of freely formed, voluntary political, social, and economic associations which is an essential component of a constitutional democracy. A vital civil society not only prevents the abuse or excessive concentration of power by government; the organizations of civil society serve as public laboratories in which citizens learn democracy by doing it. Knowledge of the ideals, values, and principles set forth in the nation's core documents serves an additional and useful purpose. Those ideals, values, and principles are criteria which citizens can use to judge the means and ends of government, as well as the means and ends of the myriad groups that are part of civil society. This also helps citizens understand and evaluate the limited government they have ordained and established and the complex dispersal and sharing of powers it entails. Citizens who understand the justification for this system of limited, dispersed, and shared power and its design are better able to hold their governments-local, state, and national-accountable and to ensure that the rights of individuals are protected. They also will develop a considered appreciation of the place of law in the Zambian political system, as well as of the unparalleled opportunities for choice and citizen participation that the system makes possible.
The issue of democracy and good governance is also dependent on civil society because they determine the roles of citizens in Zambian democracy and this is of particular importance. Citizenship in a constitutional democracy means that each citizen is a full and equal member of a self governing community and is endowed with fundamental rights and entrusted with responsibilities. Citizens should understand that through their involvement in political life and in civil society, they can help to improve the quality of life in their neighborhoods, communities, and nation. If they want their voices to be heard, they must become active participants in the political process. Although elections, campaigns, and voting are central to democratic institutions, citizens should learn that beyond electoral politics many participatory opportunities are open to them. Finally, they should come to understand that the attainment of individual goals and public goals tend to go hand in hand with participation in political life and civil society. They are more likely to achieve personal goals for themselves and their families, as well as the goals they desire for their communities, state, and nation, if they are informed, effective, and responsible citizens, Lincoln, (1994).
The issue of democracy and good governance is dependent on civil society in the sense that if citizens are to exercise their rights and discharge their responsibilities as members of self-governing communities in Zambia, they not only need to acquire a body of knowledge such as that embodied in the five organizing questions just described; they also need to acquire relevant intellectual and participatory skills. Intellectual skills in civics and government are inseparable from content, NAEP (1998).
To be able to think critically about a political issue, for example, one must have an understanding of the issue, its history, its contemporary relevance, as well as command of a set of intellectual tools or considerations useful in dealing with such an issue.
The intellectual skills essential for informed, effective, and responsible citizenship sometimes are called critical thinking skills. National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) categorize these skills as identifying and describing; explaining and analyzing; and evaluating, taking, and defending positions on public issues. A good civic education enables one to identify or give the meaning or significance of things that are tangible such as the flag, national monuments, or civic and political events. It also enables one to give the meaning or significance of intangibles, such as ideas or concepts including patriotism, majority and minority rights, civil society, and constitutionalism. The ability to identify emotional language and symbols is of particular importance for citizens. They need to be able to discern the true purposes for which emotive language and symbols are being employed. Another intellectual skill which good civic education fosters is that of describing. The ability to describe functions and processes such as legislative checks and balances or judicial review is indicative of understanding. Discerning and describing trends, such as participation in civic life, immigration, or employment helps the citizen fit current events into a longer term pattern.
Democracy and good governance in good civic education seeks to develop competence in explaining and analyzing. If citizens can explain how something should work, they will be more able to detect and help correct malfunctions. Citizens also need to be able to analyze such things as the components and consequences of ideas, social, political, or economic processes, and institutions. The ability to analyze enables one to distinguish between fact and opinion or between means and ends. It also helps the citizen to clarify responsibilities such as those between personal and public responsibilities or those between elected or appointed officials and citizens. In a self-governing society citizens are decision-makers. They need, therefore, to develop and continue to improve their skills of evaluating, taking, and defending positions. These skills are essential if citizens are to assess issues on the public agenda, to make judgments about issues and to discuss their assessment with others in public or private, Farkins (2008).
Farkins (2008) says the acquisition of knowledge and intellectual skills, education for citizenship in a democratic society must focus on skills that are required for informed, effective, and responsible participation in the political process and in civil society. Those skills can be categorized as interacting, monitoring, and influencing. Interacting pertains to the skills citizens need to communicate and to work cooperatively with others. To interact is to be responsive to one's fellow citizens. To interact is to question, to answer, and to deliberate with civility, as well as to build coalitions and to manage conflict in a fair, peaceful manner. Monitoring politics and government refers to the skills citizens need to track the handling of issues by the political process and by government. Monitoring also means the exercising of oversight or "watchdog" functions on the part of citizens. Finally, the participatory skill of influencing refers to the capacity to affect the processes of politics and governance, both the formal and the informal processes of governance in the community.
The issue of democracy and good governance is dependent on civil society which is related to civic dispositions, referring to the traits of private and public character essential to the maintenance and improvement of constitutional democracy. civil society, like civic skills, develop slowly over time and as a result of what one learns and experiences in the home, school, community, and organizations of civil society. Those experiences should engender understanding that democracy requires the responsible self governance of each individual; one cannot exist without the other. Traits of private character such as moral responsibility, self discipline, and respect for the worth and human dignity of every individual are imperative. Traits of public character are no less consequential. Such traits as public spiritedness, civility, respect for the rule of law, critical mindedness, and willingness to listen, negotiate, and compromise are indispensable to democracy's success. Civic dispositions that contribute to the political efficacy of the individual, the healthy functioning of the political system, a sense of dignity and worth, and the common good were identified in the National Standards for Civics and Government. In the interest of brevity, those dispositions or traits of private and public character might be described as:
Becoming an independent member of society. This disposition encompasses adhering voluntarily to self-imposed standards of behavior rather than requiring the imposition of external controls, accepting responsibility for the consequences of one's actions and fulfilling the moral and legal obligations of membership in a democratic society. Assuming the personal, political, and economic responsibilities of a citizen. These responsibilities include taking care of one's self, supporting one's family and caring for, nurturing, and educating one's children. They also include being informed about public issues, voting, paying taxes, serving on juries, performing public service, and serving in leadership positions commensurate with one's talents. Respecting individual worth and human dignity. Respecting others means listening to their opinions, behaving in a civil manner, considering the rights and interests of fellow citizens, and adhering to the principle of majority rule but recognizing the right of the minority to dissent. Participating in civic affairs in a thoughtful and effective manner. This disposition entails becoming informed prior to voting or participating in public debate, engaging in civil and reflective discourse, and assuming leadership when appropriate. It also entails evaluating whether and when one's obligations as a citizen require that personal desires and interests be subordinated to the public good and evaluating whether and when one's obligations or constitutional principles obligate one to reject certain civic expectations. Promoting the healthy functioning of constitutional democracy. This disposition encompasses being informed and attentive to public affairs, learning about and deliberating on constitutional values and principles, monitoring the adherence of political leaders and public agencies to those values and principles and taking appropriate action if adherence is lacking. This disposition also inclines the citizen to work through peaceful, legal means to change laws that are thought to be unwise or unjust, NAEP (1998).
It can be concluded that the issue of democracy and good governance is dependent on political parties, media and civil society as shown in the paper. The paper has also made references to the Zambian situation reciting specific instances. It should noted here that the issue of democracy and good governance is critical in the lives of citizens. Liberty lies in the hearts of men and women; when it dies there, no constitution, no law, no court can save it; no constitution, no law, no court can even do much to help it. While it lies there, it needs no constitution, no law, no court to save it.
REFERENCES
Farkins (2008) Governanace in Africa. Pretoria: South Africa.
Lincoln, D. (1994). The Role of Democracy and Good Governance. USA: Brookslin.
NAEP (1998). The National Standards for Civics and Government and the Civics Framework for the 1998 National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP).
Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2009. © 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation.
Difference between material and non-material culture
Difference between material and non-material culture
This paper attempts to establish the difference between material and non-material culture. It will also discuss the importance of culture as a tool for a country’s development with specific examples drawn from certain domains of life. Principally, the paper will begin with a brief introduction followed by definition of key terms before differentiating the concepts under study. This will be followed by a brief conclusion of key issues in the essay.
Torres (2008:81) defines “the way of life of a people. It includes their eating habits, dressing, mannerism and any other socially learned and transmitted behavior, Ideas, norms, values and beliefs”. All these factors are largely dependent on the kind of culture we belong to as the products of this culture. Material is defined as something used in making items or the substance used to make things. It is also referring to information such as facts, notes, and research used in the making of a book, movie, or other work, (Microsoft® Encarta® 2009. © 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation). Culture refers to the pattern of human activity and the symbols, which give significance to this activity. Culture is represented through the art, literature, costumes, customs and traditions of a community. Different cultures exist in different parts of the world. The natural environment greatly affects the lifestyle of the people of that region, thus shaping their culture. The diversity in the cultures around the world is also a result of the mindsets of people inhabiting different regions of the world.
Principally, the word culture has many different meanings. For some it refers to an appreciation of good literature, music, art, and food. Delia (2003) says culture for a biologist, it is likely to be a colony of bacteria or other microorganisms growing in a nutrient medium in a laboratory Petri dish. However, for anthropologists and other behavioral scientists, culture is the full range of learned human behavior patterns. The term was first used in this way by the pioneer English Anthropologist Edward B. Tylor in his book, Primitive Culture, published in 1871. Tylor said that culture is "that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, law, morals, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society." Of course, it is not limited to men. Women possess and create it as well. Since Tylor's time, the concept of culture has become the central focus of anthropology.
Culture is a powerful human tool for survival, but it is a fragile phenomenon. It is constantly changing and easily lost because it exists only in our minds. Our written languages, governments, buildings, and other man-made things are merely the products of culture. They are not culture in themselves. For this reason, archaeologists can not dig up culture directly in their excavations. The broken pots and other artifacts of ancient people that they uncover are only material remains that reflect cultural patterns--they are things that were made and used through cultural knowledge and skills. Studies of archeologists could be the sources of material culture while that which just exists in our minds is non material culture by contrast.
There is a clear difference between material and non-material culture. The non material aspects of any culture are its beliefs, customs, philosophy, patterns and ways of communication like verbal and non-verbal and its government. The material aspect of culture consists of the physical. These are houses, food items, factories, raw materials and technologies. Every culture is the product of this interaction between its' material and non material aspects, (Torres, 2008).
The other difference between material and non-material culture is that since culture is used in different contexts, it also gives the meaning to an object (material culture). For example, a ring might be just an artifact, but in a society where wedding rings are exchanged, it will be valued differently while non material culture might be difficult to handle.
The difference between material and non-material culture is that it is easier to change the material culture of any society than the non material part of it. This is because culture is a socially learned and transmitted behavior. Ideas, norms, values and beliefs are largely dependent on the kind of culture we belong to as the products of this non material culture. The non material aspects of any culture are its beliefs, customs, philosophy, patterns and ways of communication (verbal and non-verbal) and its government. The material aspect of culture consists of the physical. These are houses, food items, factories, raw materials and technologies. Every culture is the product of this interaction between its' material and non material aspects.
Another difference between material and non-material culture is that material culture is easily lost into cultural universals while non material culture is not. Material culture in culture universals refer to those learned behavior patterns that are shared by all of humanity collectively. No matter where people live in the world, they share these universal traits. Examples of such "human cultural" traits include: communicating with a verbal language consisting of a limited set of sounds and grammatical rules for constructing sentences. Using age and gender to classify people like teenager, senior citizen, woman, man). Classifying people based on marriage and descent relationships and having kinship terms to refer to them (e.g., wife, mother, uncle, cousin). raising children in some sort of family setting. Having a concept of privacy. Having some sort of leadership roles for the implementation of community decisions. Having rules to regulate sexual behavior. Distinguishing between good and bad behavior, (Torress, 2008).
While all cultures have these and possibly many other universal traits, different cultures have developed their own specific ways of carrying out or expressing them. For instance, people in deaf subcultures frequently use their hands to communicate with sign language instead of verbal language. However, sign languages have grammatical rules just as verbal ones do.
The importance of culture cannot be over emphasized. Culture is important as it gives a nation or individuals a sense of belonging and national heritage. The cultural values of a community give it an identity of its own. A community gains a character and a personality of its own, because of the culture of its people. Culture is shared by the members of a community. It is learned and passed from the older generations to the newer ones. For an effective transfer of culture from one generation to another, it has to be translated into symbols. Language, art and religion serve as the symbolic means of transfer of cultural values between generations.
Torres (2008) says the importance of culture is reflected in the sense that culture is a bond that ties the people of a region or community together. It is that one common bond, which brings the people of a community together. The customs and traditions that the people of a community follow, the festivals they celebrate, the kind of clothing they wear, the food they eat, and most importantly, the cultural values they adhere to, bind them together.
The other importance of culture is that it classifies people according to their dressing, appearance, speech and the general behavior. However, it should be noted here that culture and the society are not the same. While cultures are complexes of learned behavior patterns and perceptions, societies are groups of interacting organisms. People are not the only animals that have societies. Schools of fish, flocks of birds, and hives of bees are societies. In the case of humans, however, societies are groups of people who directly or indirectly interact with each other. People in human societies also generally perceive that their society is distinct from other societies in terms of shared traditions and expectations, O'Neil, (2006). There is a difference of opinion in the behavioral sciences about whether or not we are the only animal that creates and uses culture. The answer to this question depends on how narrow culture is defined. If it is used broadly to refer to a complex of learned behavior patterns, then it is clear that we are not alone in creating and using culture. Many other animal species teach their young what they themselves learned in order to survive.
Kroeber & Kluckhohn, (1952) says While human societies and cultures are not the same thing, they are inextricably connected because culture is created and transmitted to others in a society. Cultures are not the product of lone individuals. They are the continuously evolving products of people interacting with each other. Cultural patterns such as language and politics make no sense except in terms of the interaction of people. If you were the only human on earth, there would be no need for language or government.
The other importance of culture is that culture is seen as a system of social control, wherein people shape their standards and behavior. The cultural values form the founding principles of one’s life. They influence one’s principles and philosophies of life. They influence one’s way of living and thus impact social life.
The importance of culture lies in the fact that it is a link between people and their value systems. Read information about the different cultures of the world. O'Neil, (2006), Tylor (1974), Kim (2001), Kroeber & Kluckhohn, (1952) identifies the following as the impotence of culture. The first one is that culture Creates Identification. The culture and the values followed in a particular community display its own unique identity. By practicing a set of rituals and traditions, the community gains a unique character and personality, simply because of the culture of the people belonging to it. Being shared amongst various members of a community, the language, art, and religion serve as the major symbols of culture, thereby distinguishing it from other cultures in the society. Further, it is learned and passed on from the older generations to the newer ones, thereby keeping the culture alive and fresh. They also acknowledge that culture bonds People together. Culture is merely a bond or tie that keeps people belonging to a particular region or community together. Thus, people following similar rituals, customs, and values fall into one culture, thereby bonding them together. These include the festivals they celebrate, the kind of clothing they wear, the food they eat, most importantly, the cultural values they adhere to.
The other significance or importance of culture is that it establishes Principles. Culture is often viewed as an integrated system that controls the society. As such, people coming from a particular culture exhibit distinguished standards and behaviors. The cultural values that people inhibit form the founding principles of an individual’s life. Moreover, these cultural values highly influence a person’s principles and philosophies of life and one’s way of living. Thus, a culture is significant in affecting a human being’s social life.
Culture help people to stand up in a foreign Country. People who have seeped their cultural values and traditions in their lives display them in foreign lands as well. In today’s competitive world, most people migrate from their homeland to other countries in the quest of a better living. It is only due to their sustaining of the cultural values that they stay connected with their family and community, in particular. Further, they maintain their unique rituals and customs so that they do not mingle with the foreigners and lose out their traditions back home.
It can be concluded as pointed out in the paper that material culture refers to the physical objects, resources, and spaces that people use to define their culture. These include homes, neighborhoods, cities, schools, churches, synagogues, temples, mosques, offices, factories and plants, tools, means of production, goods and products, stores, and so forth. All of these physical aspects of a culture help to define its members' behaviors and perceptions. Non-material culture on the other hand refers to the nonphysical ideas that people have about their culture, including beliefs, values, rules, norms, morals, language, organizations, and institutions. For instance, the non-material cultural concept of religion consists of a set of ideas and beliefs about God, worship, morals, and ethics. These beliefs, then, determine how the culture responds to its religious topics, issues, and events. However, when considering non-material culture, sociologists refer to several processes that a culture uses to shape its members' thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. Four of the most important of these are symbols, language, values, and norms. On the other hand, the paper also pointed out that the importance of culture is different ways. For example, it was clear that culture help people to stand up in a foreign Country and bond them together, it establishes Principles and creates Identification and that it gives a sense of belonging and national heritage.
References
Kroeber, A. L. and C. Kluckhohn, (1952). Culture: A Critical Review of Concepts and Definitions. Cambridge, MA: Peabody Museum
Kim, U. (2001). "Culture, science and indigenous psychologies: An integrated analysis." In D. Matsumoto (Ed.), Handbook of culture and psychology. Oxford: Oxford University Press
O'Neil, D. (2006). Cultural Anthropology Tutorials, Behavioral Sciences Department, Palomar College, San Marco, California. Retrieved: 2006-07-10.
Torres, H. (2008). The Factors of Culture in Development. USA.
Tylor, E.B. (1974). Primitive culture: researches into the development of mythology, philosophy, religion, art, and custom. New York: Gordon Press.
Microsoft® Encarta® 2009. © 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation
http://wiki.answers.com/Q/Differentiate_non_material_culture_and_material_culture#ixzz1JWE6gogA
This paper attempts to establish the difference between material and non-material culture. It will also discuss the importance of culture as a tool for a country’s development with specific examples drawn from certain domains of life. Principally, the paper will begin with a brief introduction followed by definition of key terms before differentiating the concepts under study. This will be followed by a brief conclusion of key issues in the essay.
Torres (2008:81) defines “the way of life of a people. It includes their eating habits, dressing, mannerism and any other socially learned and transmitted behavior, Ideas, norms, values and beliefs”. All these factors are largely dependent on the kind of culture we belong to as the products of this culture. Material is defined as something used in making items or the substance used to make things. It is also referring to information such as facts, notes, and research used in the making of a book, movie, or other work, (Microsoft® Encarta® 2009. © 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation). Culture refers to the pattern of human activity and the symbols, which give significance to this activity. Culture is represented through the art, literature, costumes, customs and traditions of a community. Different cultures exist in different parts of the world. The natural environment greatly affects the lifestyle of the people of that region, thus shaping their culture. The diversity in the cultures around the world is also a result of the mindsets of people inhabiting different regions of the world.
Principally, the word culture has many different meanings. For some it refers to an appreciation of good literature, music, art, and food. Delia (2003) says culture for a biologist, it is likely to be a colony of bacteria or other microorganisms growing in a nutrient medium in a laboratory Petri dish. However, for anthropologists and other behavioral scientists, culture is the full range of learned human behavior patterns. The term was first used in this way by the pioneer English Anthropologist Edward B. Tylor in his book, Primitive Culture, published in 1871. Tylor said that culture is "that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, law, morals, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society." Of course, it is not limited to men. Women possess and create it as well. Since Tylor's time, the concept of culture has become the central focus of anthropology.
Culture is a powerful human tool for survival, but it is a fragile phenomenon. It is constantly changing and easily lost because it exists only in our minds. Our written languages, governments, buildings, and other man-made things are merely the products of culture. They are not culture in themselves. For this reason, archaeologists can not dig up culture directly in their excavations. The broken pots and other artifacts of ancient people that they uncover are only material remains that reflect cultural patterns--they are things that were made and used through cultural knowledge and skills. Studies of archeologists could be the sources of material culture while that which just exists in our minds is non material culture by contrast.
There is a clear difference between material and non-material culture. The non material aspects of any culture are its beliefs, customs, philosophy, patterns and ways of communication like verbal and non-verbal and its government. The material aspect of culture consists of the physical. These are houses, food items, factories, raw materials and technologies. Every culture is the product of this interaction between its' material and non material aspects, (Torres, 2008).
The other difference between material and non-material culture is that since culture is used in different contexts, it also gives the meaning to an object (material culture). For example, a ring might be just an artifact, but in a society where wedding rings are exchanged, it will be valued differently while non material culture might be difficult to handle.
The difference between material and non-material culture is that it is easier to change the material culture of any society than the non material part of it. This is because culture is a socially learned and transmitted behavior. Ideas, norms, values and beliefs are largely dependent on the kind of culture we belong to as the products of this non material culture. The non material aspects of any culture are its beliefs, customs, philosophy, patterns and ways of communication (verbal and non-verbal) and its government. The material aspect of culture consists of the physical. These are houses, food items, factories, raw materials and technologies. Every culture is the product of this interaction between its' material and non material aspects.
Another difference between material and non-material culture is that material culture is easily lost into cultural universals while non material culture is not. Material culture in culture universals refer to those learned behavior patterns that are shared by all of humanity collectively. No matter where people live in the world, they share these universal traits. Examples of such "human cultural" traits include: communicating with a verbal language consisting of a limited set of sounds and grammatical rules for constructing sentences. Using age and gender to classify people like teenager, senior citizen, woman, man). Classifying people based on marriage and descent relationships and having kinship terms to refer to them (e.g., wife, mother, uncle, cousin). raising children in some sort of family setting. Having a concept of privacy. Having some sort of leadership roles for the implementation of community decisions. Having rules to regulate sexual behavior. Distinguishing between good and bad behavior, (Torress, 2008).
While all cultures have these and possibly many other universal traits, different cultures have developed their own specific ways of carrying out or expressing them. For instance, people in deaf subcultures frequently use their hands to communicate with sign language instead of verbal language. However, sign languages have grammatical rules just as verbal ones do.
The importance of culture cannot be over emphasized. Culture is important as it gives a nation or individuals a sense of belonging and national heritage. The cultural values of a community give it an identity of its own. A community gains a character and a personality of its own, because of the culture of its people. Culture is shared by the members of a community. It is learned and passed from the older generations to the newer ones. For an effective transfer of culture from one generation to another, it has to be translated into symbols. Language, art and religion serve as the symbolic means of transfer of cultural values between generations.
Torres (2008) says the importance of culture is reflected in the sense that culture is a bond that ties the people of a region or community together. It is that one common bond, which brings the people of a community together. The customs and traditions that the people of a community follow, the festivals they celebrate, the kind of clothing they wear, the food they eat, and most importantly, the cultural values they adhere to, bind them together.
The other importance of culture is that it classifies people according to their dressing, appearance, speech and the general behavior. However, it should be noted here that culture and the society are not the same. While cultures are complexes of learned behavior patterns and perceptions, societies are groups of interacting organisms. People are not the only animals that have societies. Schools of fish, flocks of birds, and hives of bees are societies. In the case of humans, however, societies are groups of people who directly or indirectly interact with each other. People in human societies also generally perceive that their society is distinct from other societies in terms of shared traditions and expectations, O'Neil, (2006). There is a difference of opinion in the behavioral sciences about whether or not we are the only animal that creates and uses culture. The answer to this question depends on how narrow culture is defined. If it is used broadly to refer to a complex of learned behavior patterns, then it is clear that we are not alone in creating and using culture. Many other animal species teach their young what they themselves learned in order to survive.
Kroeber & Kluckhohn, (1952) says While human societies and cultures are not the same thing, they are inextricably connected because culture is created and transmitted to others in a society. Cultures are not the product of lone individuals. They are the continuously evolving products of people interacting with each other. Cultural patterns such as language and politics make no sense except in terms of the interaction of people. If you were the only human on earth, there would be no need for language or government.
The other importance of culture is that culture is seen as a system of social control, wherein people shape their standards and behavior. The cultural values form the founding principles of one’s life. They influence one’s principles and philosophies of life. They influence one’s way of living and thus impact social life.
The importance of culture lies in the fact that it is a link between people and their value systems. Read information about the different cultures of the world. O'Neil, (2006), Tylor (1974), Kim (2001), Kroeber & Kluckhohn, (1952) identifies the following as the impotence of culture. The first one is that culture Creates Identification. The culture and the values followed in a particular community display its own unique identity. By practicing a set of rituals and traditions, the community gains a unique character and personality, simply because of the culture of the people belonging to it. Being shared amongst various members of a community, the language, art, and religion serve as the major symbols of culture, thereby distinguishing it from other cultures in the society. Further, it is learned and passed on from the older generations to the newer ones, thereby keeping the culture alive and fresh. They also acknowledge that culture bonds People together. Culture is merely a bond or tie that keeps people belonging to a particular region or community together. Thus, people following similar rituals, customs, and values fall into one culture, thereby bonding them together. These include the festivals they celebrate, the kind of clothing they wear, the food they eat, most importantly, the cultural values they adhere to.
The other significance or importance of culture is that it establishes Principles. Culture is often viewed as an integrated system that controls the society. As such, people coming from a particular culture exhibit distinguished standards and behaviors. The cultural values that people inhibit form the founding principles of an individual’s life. Moreover, these cultural values highly influence a person’s principles and philosophies of life and one’s way of living. Thus, a culture is significant in affecting a human being’s social life.
Culture help people to stand up in a foreign Country. People who have seeped their cultural values and traditions in their lives display them in foreign lands as well. In today’s competitive world, most people migrate from their homeland to other countries in the quest of a better living. It is only due to their sustaining of the cultural values that they stay connected with their family and community, in particular. Further, they maintain their unique rituals and customs so that they do not mingle with the foreigners and lose out their traditions back home.
It can be concluded as pointed out in the paper that material culture refers to the physical objects, resources, and spaces that people use to define their culture. These include homes, neighborhoods, cities, schools, churches, synagogues, temples, mosques, offices, factories and plants, tools, means of production, goods and products, stores, and so forth. All of these physical aspects of a culture help to define its members' behaviors and perceptions. Non-material culture on the other hand refers to the nonphysical ideas that people have about their culture, including beliefs, values, rules, norms, morals, language, organizations, and institutions. For instance, the non-material cultural concept of religion consists of a set of ideas and beliefs about God, worship, morals, and ethics. These beliefs, then, determine how the culture responds to its religious topics, issues, and events. However, when considering non-material culture, sociologists refer to several processes that a culture uses to shape its members' thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. Four of the most important of these are symbols, language, values, and norms. On the other hand, the paper also pointed out that the importance of culture is different ways. For example, it was clear that culture help people to stand up in a foreign Country and bond them together, it establishes Principles and creates Identification and that it gives a sense of belonging and national heritage.
References
Kroeber, A. L. and C. Kluckhohn, (1952). Culture: A Critical Review of Concepts and Definitions. Cambridge, MA: Peabody Museum
Kim, U. (2001). "Culture, science and indigenous psychologies: An integrated analysis." In D. Matsumoto (Ed.), Handbook of culture and psychology. Oxford: Oxford University Press
O'Neil, D. (2006). Cultural Anthropology Tutorials, Behavioral Sciences Department, Palomar College, San Marco, California. Retrieved: 2006-07-10.
Torres, H. (2008). The Factors of Culture in Development. USA.
Tylor, E.B. (1974). Primitive culture: researches into the development of mythology, philosophy, religion, art, and custom. New York: Gordon Press.
Microsoft® Encarta® 2009. © 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation
http://wiki.answers.com/Q/Differentiate_non_material_culture_and_material_culture#ixzz1JWE6gogA
Jisunge Educational Programs
Jisunge Educational Programs
________________________________________
Jisunge (Chitumbuka – Chisenga), is a popular education and social concept developed by renowned Zambian pedagogue, educational community worker, theorist and artist Sitwe Benson MkandaĊµile grounded on self-sustainability. Jisunge means sustain yourself, take care of yourself. It focuses on developing an individual to sustain themselves without depending on anyone; have their own home, find their own food and take care of their expenses. Jisunge is the ability to acquire lifelong skills in economic, social, political, and cultural values in order to sustain yourself in the society.
The concept of Jisunge was developed by Sitwe Benson MkandaĊµile primarily in his works with some community workers. In his work with different communities in Africa, Sitwe interacted with many communities helping them gain an awareness of world conditions, their own environment and how to sustain themselves effectively.
________________________________________
Jisunge (Chitumbuka – Chisenga), is a popular education and social concept developed by renowned Zambian pedagogue, educational community worker, theorist and artist Sitwe Benson MkandaĊµile grounded on self-sustainability. Jisunge means sustain yourself, take care of yourself. It focuses on developing an individual to sustain themselves without depending on anyone; have their own home, find their own food and take care of their expenses. Jisunge is the ability to acquire lifelong skills in economic, social, political, and cultural values in order to sustain yourself in the society.
The concept of Jisunge was developed by Sitwe Benson MkandaĊµile primarily in his works with some community workers. In his work with different communities in Africa, Sitwe interacted with many communities helping them gain an awareness of world conditions, their own environment and how to sustain themselves effectively.
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