Senga-Tumbuka Languages Development Committee
The Senga-Tumbuka Languages Development Committee was established in 2006 and came to fully function in 2007. The committee tasked itself to develop Senga and Tumbuka Languages as they are closely related in their phonetics, phonology, morphology, semantics, syntax, discourse and pragmatics. While the committee is working on communal activities, they have achieved a number of things amongst them include.
1. Figures of speech in Senga and Tumbuka published on soft copy in 2008.
2. Mapinda ya mu Chisenga na Chitumbuka published 2009. Hard copies yet to come out from the publishing house.
3. Chitumbuka – Chisenga grade one buku read for distribution in 2010
4. Translated Google search engine into Senga and Tumbuka in 2011
Currently, they are working on a number of projects both as a committee and as individuals.
Since its establishment, the Senga Tumbuka languages development committee is being chaired by Dr. Rosemary Chirwa and the secretary general is Francis Manda Magiya, the treasurer is Dr Ben Chirwa and others. Within the Senga-Tumbuka languages Development committee, there exist different sub committees which include the research committee, fundraising committee and the writing committee being chaired by Reverent Kandinda. The committee is determined to do whatever it can to develop the two languages above.
Thursday, March 17, 2011
Wednesday, March 16, 2011
Premises of adult education
Premises of adult education
This paper aims at identifying and showing any three institutions or organizations in Zambia which are using any three premises given in the module, why, how and where which are advancing some prescribed adult education premises in Zambia. This will be followed by the discussion in the main body and the conclusion.
“A premise is synonymous to evidence, principle, idea, foundation, ground, statement, basis. It is a basis, proposition, supposition, hypothesis, assertion, thesis, presupposition, grounds, assumption, postulate, presumption (formal) on which something is based”, (Encarta 2009). The definition of adult Education like other forms of education is perculiar, all forms of schooling and learning programs in which adults participate are termed adult education. Unlike other types of education, adult education is defined by the student population rather than by the content or complexity of a learning program. It includes literacy training, community development, university credit programs, on-the-job training, and continuing professional education. Programs vary in organization from casual, incidental learning to formal college credit courses. Institutions offering education to adults in Zambia include Universities like the University of Zambia (UNZA) Zambian Open University (ZAO) and Non-governmental organization people’s Action forum (PAF). There are other institutions which provide adult education like colleges, libraries, museums, social service and government agencies, businesses, and churches in Zambia.
The provision of adult education is based on certain principles or premises by consensus based on research. Part of being an effective educator involves understanding how adults learn best (Lieb,1991). Andragogy (adult learning) is a theory that holds a set of assumptions about how adults learn. Andragogy emphasises the value of the process of learning. It uses approaches to learning that are problem-based and collaborative rather than didactic, and also emphasises more equality between the teacher and learner. As compared to children and teens, adults have special needs and requirements as learners. Despite the apparent truth, adult learning is a relatively new area of study. The field of adult learning was pioneered by Malcom Knowles. He identified the following characteristics of adult learners in a peculiar way through research.
Studies have shown that there are a number of premises that have to be followed many of which are in line with (page 5 of the given module) premises. These premises includes that facts that adults are internally motivated and self-directed bringing into classes life experiences and knowledge to learning experiences. That adults are goal oriented and would like to learn things which are of relevance to their lives. Adult learners need to be respected, acknowledged and teach practical things of social utility.
In Zambia, there are a limited number of institutions facilitating adult learning premises and these include the University of Zambia in the department of Adult and extension studies, The Zambian open University adult education area and people’s Action Forum (PAF) in its adult literacy programmes. However, it should be pointed out here that although these learning institutions have been shortlisted above, they do not fully acknowledge all the premises which an adult learner is expected to have. In the three institutions, they all portray similar traits and characteristics in the manner in which they try to administer these literacy programmes such as as adhering to the adult learning premises may its because same and similar learning facilitators who had the same education are found in such institutions. Nevertheless, these premises are affected by a number of factors in all these institutions which can hardly be neglected.
These learning premises are further affected by certain factors in these three learning institutions which are in line with a number of observations from different scholars. Mcclusky (1974) has highlighted on a number of factors which were further dived into two groups of interacting elements which influence the premises of adult learning: External factors which looks at tasks of life such as family, career, economic status. There is also Internal factors which focuses on self-concept, goals, personal expectations and others. It should be noted that there is also an aspect of power which consists of a combination of external resources and capacity as family support, social abilities, and economic abilities. Also, including internally acquired or accumulated skills and experiences contributing to effective performance, such as resiliency, coping skills, and personality. In the provision of education, power factors in include Physical - strength, stamina, energy, and health. Social - ability to relate to others. Mental - ability to think and reason. Economic - money position, and influence. Skills - what an individual knows how to do. The best Example can be the one given by (Hiemstra and Sisco, 1990) who said “a person's performance will be a function of various loads dimensions and values, as well as a capacity to carry the load. Margin can be increased by reducing load or increasing power, suggesting that surplus power is always needed to provide enough margins to meet various load requirements of life emergencies in adult learners”.
McClusky’s works, has demonstrated that throughout his adult life, he has exactly shown the processes through which adult education learners pass through including the different processes involving both challenges and possibilities in the education circles’. He has shown that each person has an endless potential, vitality, and resiliency. His contributions to education is his educational gerontology due to his early work in adult education have helped to foster a rapid growing discipline and have motivated a lot of scholars to write a lot of materials and develop theories about adult education life.
It was pointed out that adults education is based on the premise that adults are internally motivated and self-directed. Studies has demonstrated that this premise is valid in all learning institutions if all learners are to be maintained in classes. This is due to the fact that adult learners resist learning when they feel others are imposing information, ideas or actions on them which is meaningless and caries little or plays no role in their lives. Knowles says “adults are autonomous and self-directed”. Arguing that they need to be free to direct themselves. Their teachers must actively involve adult participants in the learning process and serve as facilitators for them. Specifically, they must get participants' perspectives about what topics to cover and let them work on projects that reflect their interests. They should allow the participants to assume responsibility for presentations and group leadership. They have to be sure to act as facilitators, guiding participants to their own knowledge rather than supplying them with facts. Finally, they must show participants how the class will help them reach their goals.
Although it is argued that there is self motivation in the learners, there is need to impart certain and specific motivation strategies in the learners according to Knowles like acknowledging some social relationships: to make new friends, to meet a need for associations and friendships. External expectations: to comply with instructions from someone else; to fulfill the expectations or recommendations of someone with formal authority. Social welfare: to improve ability to serve mankind, prepare for service to the community, and improve ability to participate in community work. Personal advancement: to achieve higher status in a job, secure professional advancement, and stay abreast of competitors. scape/Stimulation: to relieve boredom, provide a break in the routine of home or work, and provide a contrast to other exacting details of life. Cognitive interest: to learn for the sake of learning, seek knowledge for its own sake, and to satisfy an inquiring mind.
If not well planned like what happens in the three institution metioned above, Adult learners ca be demotivated heavily on many accounts because unlike children and teenagers, adults have many responsibilities that they must balance against the demands of learning. Because of these responsibilities, adults have barriers against participating in learning. Some of these barriers include lack of time, money, confidence, or interest, lack of information about opportunities to learn, scheduling problems, "red tape," and problems with child care and transportation. Motivation factors can also be a barrier. What motivates adult learners? Typical motivations include a requirement for competence or licensing, an expected (or realized) promotion, job enrichment, a need to maintain old skills or learn new ones, a need to adapt to job changes, or the need to learn in order to comply with company directives. The best way to motivate adult learners is simply to enhance their reasons for enrolling and decrease the barriers. Instructors must learn why their students are enrolled (the motivators); they have to discover what is keeping them from learning. Then the instructors must plan their motivating strategies. A successful strategy includes showing adult learners the relationship between training and an expected promotion.
Another premise being implemented by UNZA, ZAO and PAF about adult learning is that all these institution bear in mind that adults have accumulated a foundation of life experiences and knowledge that may include work-related activities, family responsibilities, and previous education. They directly connect learning to this knowledge/experience base. To help them do so, they usually draw out participants' experience and knowledge which is relevant to the topic. They relate theories and concepts to the participants and recognize the value of experience in learning. An eye open premise being implemented by these institutions about adult learning is that of the view that adults are goal-oriented. Upon enrolling in a course, they usually know what goal they want to attain. They, therefore, appreciate an educational program that is organized and has clearly defined elements. Instructors must show participants how this class will help them attain their goals. This classification of goals and course objectives must be done early in the course.
Another premise being implemented by UNZA, ZAO and PAF about adult learning is that adults are relevancy-oriented. They must see a reason for learning something. Learning has to be applicable to their work or other responsibilities to be of value to them. Therefore, instructors must identify objectives for adult participants before the course begins. This means, also, that theories and concepts must be related to a setting familiar to participants. This need can be fulfilled by letting participants choose projects that reflect their own interests. Adults are practical, focusing on the aspects of a lesson most useful to them in their work. They may not be interested in knowledge for its own sake. Instructors must tell participants explicitly how the lesson will be useful to them on the job. As do all learners, adults need to be shown respect. Instructors must acknowledge the wealth of experiences that adult participants bring to the classroom. These adults should be treated as equals in experience and knowledge and allowed to voice their opinions freely in class.
One common feature demonstrated by these learning institutions is that they facilitate positive re-inforcement in adult education. In these three institutions facilitating these premises for adult learning, they must continue to remember that learning occurs within each individual as a continual process throughout life. People learn at different speeds, so it is natural for them to be anxious or nervous when faced with a learning situation. Positive reinforcement by the instructor can enhance learning, as can proper timing of the instruction. Learning results from stimulation of the senses. In some people, one sense is used more than others to learn or recall information. Instructors should present materials that stimulates as many senses as possible in order to increase their chances of teaching success.
Although they try their best in addressing these issues they neglect certain factors which are important. While motivation and reinforcement are vital for adult learners, retention and transference need to be emphasized. However, with regard to motivation, if the participant does not recognize the need for the information (or has been offended or intimidated), all of the instructor's effort to assist the participant to learn will be in vain. The instructor must establish rapport with participants and prepare them for learning; this provides motivation. Instructors can motivate students via several means like set a feeling or tone for the lesson where instructors should try to establish a friendly, open atmosphere that shows the participants they will help them learn. Set an appropriate level of concern whereby the level of tension must be adjusted to meet the level of importance of the objective. If the material has a high level of importance, a higher level of tension/stress should be established in the class. However, people learn best under low to moderate stress; if the stress is too high, it becomes a barrier to learning. Set an appropriate level of difficulty to which the degree of difficulty should be set high enough to challenge participants but not so high that they become frustrated by information overload. The instruction should predict and reward participation, culminating in success. In addition, participants need specific knowledge of their learning results (feedback ). Feedback must be specific, not general. Participants must also see a reward for learning. The reward does not necessarily have to be monetary; it can be simply a demonstration of benefits to be realized from learning the material. Finally, the participant must be interested in the subject. Interest is directly related to reward. Adults must see the benefit of learning in order to motivate themselves to learn the subject.
One other common aspect implemented by UNZA, ZAO and PAF about adult learning is that of reinforcement. Reinforcement is a very necessary part of the teaching/learning process; through it, instructors encourage correct modes of behavior and performance. Positive reinforcement is normally used by instructors who are teaching participants new skills. As the name implies, positive reinforcement is "good" and reinforces "good" (or positive) behavior. Negative reinforcement is the contingent removal of a noxious stimulus that tends to increase the behavior. The contingent presentation of a noxious stimulus that tends to decrease a behavior is called Punishment. Reinforcing a behavior will never lead to extinction of that behavior by definition. Punishment and Time Out lead to extinction of a particular behavior, but positive or negative reinforcement of that behavior never will. Reinforcement should be part of the teaching-learning process to ensure correct behavior. Instructors need to use it on a frequent and regular basis early in the process to help the students retain what they have learned. Then, they should use reinforcement only to maintain consistent, positive behavior.
Alongside with reinforcement is retention where these institutions UNZA, ZAO and PAF dealing with adult learning must retain information from classes in order to benefit from the learning. The instructors' jobs are not finished until they have assisted the learner in retaining the information. In order for participants to retain the information taught, they must see a meaning or purpose for that information. The must also understand and be able to interpret and apply the information. This understanding includes their ability to assign the correct degree of importance to the material.
The amount of retention will be directly affected by the degree of original learning. Simply stated, if the participants did not learn the material well initially, they will not retain it well either. Retention by the participants is directly affected by their amount of practice during the learning. Instructors should emphasize retention and application. After the students demonstrate correct (desired) performance, they should be urged to practice to maintain the desired performance. Distributed practice is similar in effect to intermittent reinforcement.
Transference is another element. Transfer of learning is the result of training. It is the ability to use the information taught in the course but in a new setting. As with reinforcement, there are two types of transfer: positive and negative. Positive transference, like positive reinforcement, occurs when the participants uses the behavior taught in the course. Negative transference, again like negative reinforcement, occurs when the participants do not do what they are told not to do. This results in a positive (desired) outcome. Transference is most likely to occur in the following situations: Association -- participants can associate the new information with something that they already know. Similarity -- the information is similar to material that participants already know; that is, it revisits a logical framework or pattern. Degree of original learning -- participant's degree of original learning was high. Critical attribute element -- the information learned contains elements that are extremely beneficial (critical) on the job. Although adult learning is relatively new as field of study, it is just as substantial as traditional education and carries and potential for greater success. Of course, the heightened success requires a greater responsibility on the part of the teacher. Additionally, the learners come to the course with precisely defined expectations. Unfortunately, there are barriers to their learning. The best motivators for adult learners are interest and selfish benefit. If they can be shown that the course benefits them pragmatically, they will perform better, and the benefits will be longer lasting.
Another explanation is in line with other scholars like Maclusky. A lot of scholars have written about Maclusky’s theory of adult learning and some of them have critically analyzed his works and gave different comments. How ever, there has been many efforts to construct theories or models that provide some explanation of how and why adults learn in the different age groups. There is also a number of debates from different scholars around the world regarding their perception about learning and some of which have been more successful than others. A few have drawn considerable attention in terms of being referenced or discussed in the literature several times since they were first introduced. Nevertheless, these latter theories especially those which have not been thoroughly tested or developed by various researchers and, subsequently, have remained primarily associated with their originators.
It is evident that McClusky is known because of his Margin theory and his subsequent publications in various fields like gerontology. In relation to this assertion, the scholar Hiemstra says the following;
In the theory of Margin, Howard Y. McClusky, a Professor of Educational Psychology and adult Education at the University of Michigan from 1924 until his death in 1982, looked at adult learning through the eyes of a person trained in experimental psychology with valid and tangible premises. He was long concerned with finding ways to help adults maintain a productive posture in meeting the requirements of living. Early in his career he worked primarily with young adults. Then as he himself aged, his concerns shifted to adults at later ages (Hiemstra, 1981). He focused primarily on adults in retirement his last fifteen years.
Mcclusky’ theory was introduced a long time ago about forty years before he died in 1982 (McClusky, 1963). Mcclusky himself noted that the theory of margin was very was relevant for understanding adults' physical and mental well-being, especially during their later years when various demands or pressures might increase in their lives. McClusky in his theory believed that adulthood involved continuous growth, change, and integration, in which constant effort must be made to wisely use the energy available for meeting normal living responsibilities. However, because people have less than perfect control over many aspects of life, they must always be prepared to meet unpredictable crises or problems. He formulated a formula out of the Margin theory. His formula was expressing a ratio or relationship between the "load" (of living) and the "power" (to carry the load). According to McClusky (1970: 27), load is "the self and social demands required by a person to maintain a minimal level of autonomy.... [Power is] the resources, i.e. [sic] abilities, possessions, position, allies, etc. [sic], which a person can command in coping with load [sic]. In this formula for margin (M), he placed designations of load (L) in the numerator and designations of power (P) in the denominator (M = L/P). In this regard, McClusky’s theory of adult learning was well established with strong defence just on the basis of the formula. All these views were reflecting on the premises of adult education as reflected in the module.
These reflection is vital as he further divided load into two groups of interacting elements, one external and one internal. The external load consists of tasks involved in normal life requirements (family, work, community responsibilities, and so forth). Internal load consists of life expectancies developed by people themselves, such as aspirations, desires, and future expectations. Power consists of a combination of such external resources and capacity as family support, social abilities, and economic abilities. It also includes various internally acquired or accumulated skills and experiences contributing to effective performance, such as resiliency, coping skills, and personality. McClusky (1970). The psychological interpretation of this phrase is that a person's performance in any field and in any way will be directly a function of various load dimensions and values, as well as a capacity to carry the load. Margin can be increased by reducing load or increasing power. McClusky (1963) suggested that surplus power is always needed to provide enough margin or cushion to meet various load requirements and life emergencies.
It should be noted that the theory of margin does not apply to adult learning only. That was just an overview of what is going on in works and in relation to learning circumstances. However, McClusky’s contributions to Adult Learning has been diverse in nature. Mcclusky developed a very comprehensive strategy and understanding of the nature and the way adults learn. Most adult in grasping is more like an adventure to the different life situations in which they are found. Mcclusky therefore, urged instructors to help learners discover aspects of the theory of Margin in both adult learning and other forms of learning. Apart from explaining how adults learn and cope with the different circumstances, McClusky’s theory of adult learning can also serve as a guide to explain some of what is happening throughout life. McClusky (1963) believed that value of the theory was its usefulness in describing varying amounts of Margin that could be involved in the adult adjustment. Such value is directly observable when applying the theory to learning activities by adults in their later years. This is when radical changes in the load-power ratio may take place due to declining financial resources, death of a spouse, and so forth. In mcclusky (1970:146) words, "In the light of our theory therefore [sic], a necessary condition for learning is access to and/or [sic] the activation of a Margin of Power that may be available for application to the processes which the learning situation requires."
For example, student who is married and is working will have a lot of tasks and responsibilities to take care of. The work load will be too much such that the effectiveness will also be affected. When the work load is high, there will be much pressure which later affects effectiveness and the margin in general.
Mcclusky further stressed that the crucial element for meeting learning or other life demands is the ratio between load and power as he say: "Whatever the load and whatever the power (up to a practical level), the crucial element is the surplus or margin of power in excess of load. It is this margin that confers autonomy on the individual, gives him [sic] an opportunity to examine a range of options, and enables him [sic] to reinvest his [sic] psychological capital in growth and development" (McClusky, n.d., p. 330).
McClusky’s theory of adult learning further urges many people to take part in the adult leaning process because the advantage of adult learning is that it provides surplus power and becomes a major force in achieving various goals because everything is well planned in future.
Without any forms of limitations, there are various ways an instructor can unknowingly generate excess "load" for a learner. If an instructor assumes a traditional, authoritarian attitude, learners may feel frustrated or that their opinions are being ignored. “…an instructor may seem disorganized or have distracting mannerisms that serve to discourage the learner. If inappropriate assignments are given or any evaluation guidelines are unclear, some adults will have difficulties. Thus, if an instructor pays little attention to creating an effective learning environment, some adults will experience increased loads due to distracting physical, social, or psychological features” (Hiemstra and Sisco, 1990).
Apart from being an adult learning theory, the Margin theory also can be used as a research framework or tool. Take for instance; Baum (1978) studied widowhood and used Margin theory as an conceptual framework. Gessner (1979) used margin as a theoretical framework for studying nurses' participation in continuing education. Gleit (1976) used the theory to look at potential restrictions to participation in continuing education. Garrison (1986), James (1986), Mikolaj (1983), and Stevenson (1982) have attempted to measure aspects of power and load. For instance, a practical and life case is given by (Hiemstra and Sisco, 1990) who said “a person's performance will be a function of various loads dimensions and values, as well as a capacity to carry the load. Margin can be increased by reducing load or increasing power, suggesting that surplus power is always needed to provide enough margins to meet various load requirements of life emergencies”.
The background of adult education premises cannot be over emphasized. The premises started a long time ago but very few institutions fully respect them. Early formal adult education activities focused on single needs such as reading and writing. Many early programs were started by churches to teach people to read the Bible. When the original purpose was satisfied, programs were often adjusted to meet more general educational needs of the population. Libraries, lecture series, and discussion societies began in various countries during the 18th century. As more people experienced the benefits of education, they began to participate increasingly in social, political, and occupational activities. By the 19th century, adult education was developing as a formal, organized movement in the Western world, Garrison (1986).
It should be noted here that the largest early program in the U.S., the Lyceum, founded (1826) in Massachusetts by Josiah Holbrook, was a local association of men and women with some schooling who wanted to expand their own education while working to establish a public school system. The Lyceum movement encouraged the development of other adult education institutions such as libraries, evening schools, and endowed lecture series. By midcentury, employers and philanthropists began to endow institutions such as the Cooper Union for the Advancement of Science and Art (1859) in New York City and the Peabody Institute (1857) in Baltimore, Maryland, for adult education. Large audiences were attracted to the Chautauqua movement, which began (1874) in New York State as a summer training program for Sunday school teachers and evolved into a traveling lecture series and summer school. Chautauqua was the prototype of institutions established to further popular education in the U.S. By 1876, universities started offering extension programs that brought education directly to the public.
Adult education was an early concern of the U.S. government. In 1862 Abraham Lincoln signed the Morrill Act, which led to the establishment of land-grant colleges offering training in agriculture and the mechanical arts. The need to develop and provide instruction in scientific farming techniques led to the establishment (1914) of the Federal Extension Service of the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The pattern of demonstration farming and extension advisers created by cooperative extension has been used to improve farming all over the world, Garrison (1986). The rapid increase in immigration into the United States during the early 20th century resulted in the establishment of more English and citizenship classes and other Americanization programs for immigrants. During the Great Depression of the 1930s, the federal government established education projects as part of its work-relief programs. Public evening classes became the most popular means of adult education, allowing people to earn a living during the day and pursue vocational and intellectual interests in their spare time. Some institutions, such as the New School for Social Research in New York City, were devoted almost entirely to education for adults. After World War II, the adult education movement in the U.S. received a major impetus with the passage of the G.I. Bill of Rights, which enabled many veterans of World War II, and of later military service, to complete their education. The Higher Education Acts of 1966 and 1986 both reflected the growing importance of adult, part-time college students; they authorized a separate title devoted to continuing education and several financial-aid programs. Universities even began to offer graduate programs in this new field.
In Zambia today, the concept of adult education is not very pronounced to the public. However, there is a glowing popularity especially as far as adult literacy is concerned. Beside this development, there is no much effort as in following up the ideals, principles that govern adult education programmes in the world. The premises for such programmes are strictly respective and this explains why it is not very popular in some societies in the world.
The university of Zambia, Zambian open university and people’s action forum who are facilitating and implementing some adult learning premises do understand that there are certain facets which need to be considered. They understand that adults have a zeal for learning and must want to learn without being forced as Hoffer says “The central task of education is to implant a will and facility for learning; it should produce not learned but learning people. The truly human society is a learning society, where grandparents, parents and children are students together,” Eric Hoffer. Adults learn by doing just like children or something practical or problem centered. Adults learning focuses on problems and these problems must realistic and therefore, experience affects adult learning. Adults learn best in informal situations. Therefore, there is also need to promote their self esteem positively by integrating new ideas with the existing knowledge and above all, there is need to show respect for individual learners by capitalizing on their experiences.
It can be concluded that this paper has identified and showed three institutions or organizations in Zambia which are using some premises given in the module, why, how and where which are advancing some prescribed adult education premises in Zambia. The paper has also shown that there is need for teachers to provide exclusive time for language learning, create a learning environment in which the learner feels safe, secure and accepted. Teachers or learning facilitators in these three institutions in Zambia must provide instructions in the context of authentic literacy experiences cognizant of each learner’s level when selecting instructional materials with respect to the premises in the module (page 5). The three institutions however, must also look at adult education from a more practical perspective by relating the experiences of each learner’s cultural background to the learning experiences.
REFERENCES
Baum, J. "An Exploration of Widowhood: Implications for Adult Educators." In Proceedings of the Annual Adult Education Research Conference. San Antonio , Texas , 1978.
Cross, K. P. Beyond the Open Door: New Students to Higher Education. San Francisco : Jossey-Bass, 1971. .
Cross, K. P. Adults as Learners: Increasing Participation and Facilitating Learning. San Francisco : Jossey-Bass, 1981.
Hiemstra, R. "The Contributions of Howard Yale McClusky to an Evolving Discipline of Educational Gerontology." Educational Gerontology, 1981, 6, 209-226.
James, J. M. "Instructor-Generated Load: An Inquiry Based on McClusky’s Concept of Margin." Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Wyoming , 1986.
Knox, A. B. (ed.) Enhancing Proficiencies of Continuing Educators. New Directions for Continuing Education, no. 1, San Francisco : Jossey-Bass, 1979.
Knox, A. B. Helping Adults Learn. San Francisco : Jossey-Bass, 1986.
McClusky, H. Y. "The Course of the adult Life Span." In W. C. Hallenbeck (ed.), Psychology of Adults. Chicago : Adult Education Association of the U.S.A. , 1963.
Roger Hiemstra is professor of Adult learning and instructional design at Syracuse University , Syracuse , NY .
This paper aims at identifying and showing any three institutions or organizations in Zambia which are using any three premises given in the module, why, how and where which are advancing some prescribed adult education premises in Zambia. This will be followed by the discussion in the main body and the conclusion.
“A premise is synonymous to evidence, principle, idea, foundation, ground, statement, basis. It is a basis, proposition, supposition, hypothesis, assertion, thesis, presupposition, grounds, assumption, postulate, presumption (formal) on which something is based”, (Encarta 2009). The definition of adult Education like other forms of education is perculiar, all forms of schooling and learning programs in which adults participate are termed adult education. Unlike other types of education, adult education is defined by the student population rather than by the content or complexity of a learning program. It includes literacy training, community development, university credit programs, on-the-job training, and continuing professional education. Programs vary in organization from casual, incidental learning to formal college credit courses. Institutions offering education to adults in Zambia include Universities like the University of Zambia (UNZA) Zambian Open University (ZAO) and Non-governmental organization people’s Action forum (PAF). There are other institutions which provide adult education like colleges, libraries, museums, social service and government agencies, businesses, and churches in Zambia.
The provision of adult education is based on certain principles or premises by consensus based on research. Part of being an effective educator involves understanding how adults learn best (Lieb,1991). Andragogy (adult learning) is a theory that holds a set of assumptions about how adults learn. Andragogy emphasises the value of the process of learning. It uses approaches to learning that are problem-based and collaborative rather than didactic, and also emphasises more equality between the teacher and learner. As compared to children and teens, adults have special needs and requirements as learners. Despite the apparent truth, adult learning is a relatively new area of study. The field of adult learning was pioneered by Malcom Knowles. He identified the following characteristics of adult learners in a peculiar way through research.
Studies have shown that there are a number of premises that have to be followed many of which are in line with (page 5 of the given module) premises. These premises includes that facts that adults are internally motivated and self-directed bringing into classes life experiences and knowledge to learning experiences. That adults are goal oriented and would like to learn things which are of relevance to their lives. Adult learners need to be respected, acknowledged and teach practical things of social utility.
In Zambia, there are a limited number of institutions facilitating adult learning premises and these include the University of Zambia in the department of Adult and extension studies, The Zambian open University adult education area and people’s Action Forum (PAF) in its adult literacy programmes. However, it should be pointed out here that although these learning institutions have been shortlisted above, they do not fully acknowledge all the premises which an adult learner is expected to have. In the three institutions, they all portray similar traits and characteristics in the manner in which they try to administer these literacy programmes such as as adhering to the adult learning premises may its because same and similar learning facilitators who had the same education are found in such institutions. Nevertheless, these premises are affected by a number of factors in all these institutions which can hardly be neglected.
These learning premises are further affected by certain factors in these three learning institutions which are in line with a number of observations from different scholars. Mcclusky (1974) has highlighted on a number of factors which were further dived into two groups of interacting elements which influence the premises of adult learning: External factors which looks at tasks of life such as family, career, economic status. There is also Internal factors which focuses on self-concept, goals, personal expectations and others. It should be noted that there is also an aspect of power which consists of a combination of external resources and capacity as family support, social abilities, and economic abilities. Also, including internally acquired or accumulated skills and experiences contributing to effective performance, such as resiliency, coping skills, and personality. In the provision of education, power factors in include Physical - strength, stamina, energy, and health. Social - ability to relate to others. Mental - ability to think and reason. Economic - money position, and influence. Skills - what an individual knows how to do. The best Example can be the one given by (Hiemstra and Sisco, 1990) who said “a person's performance will be a function of various loads dimensions and values, as well as a capacity to carry the load. Margin can be increased by reducing load or increasing power, suggesting that surplus power is always needed to provide enough margins to meet various load requirements of life emergencies in adult learners”.
McClusky’s works, has demonstrated that throughout his adult life, he has exactly shown the processes through which adult education learners pass through including the different processes involving both challenges and possibilities in the education circles’. He has shown that each person has an endless potential, vitality, and resiliency. His contributions to education is his educational gerontology due to his early work in adult education have helped to foster a rapid growing discipline and have motivated a lot of scholars to write a lot of materials and develop theories about adult education life.
It was pointed out that adults education is based on the premise that adults are internally motivated and self-directed. Studies has demonstrated that this premise is valid in all learning institutions if all learners are to be maintained in classes. This is due to the fact that adult learners resist learning when they feel others are imposing information, ideas or actions on them which is meaningless and caries little or plays no role in their lives. Knowles says “adults are autonomous and self-directed”. Arguing that they need to be free to direct themselves. Their teachers must actively involve adult participants in the learning process and serve as facilitators for them. Specifically, they must get participants' perspectives about what topics to cover and let them work on projects that reflect their interests. They should allow the participants to assume responsibility for presentations and group leadership. They have to be sure to act as facilitators, guiding participants to their own knowledge rather than supplying them with facts. Finally, they must show participants how the class will help them reach their goals.
Although it is argued that there is self motivation in the learners, there is need to impart certain and specific motivation strategies in the learners according to Knowles like acknowledging some social relationships: to make new friends, to meet a need for associations and friendships. External expectations: to comply with instructions from someone else; to fulfill the expectations or recommendations of someone with formal authority. Social welfare: to improve ability to serve mankind, prepare for service to the community, and improve ability to participate in community work. Personal advancement: to achieve higher status in a job, secure professional advancement, and stay abreast of competitors. scape/Stimulation: to relieve boredom, provide a break in the routine of home or work, and provide a contrast to other exacting details of life. Cognitive interest: to learn for the sake of learning, seek knowledge for its own sake, and to satisfy an inquiring mind.
If not well planned like what happens in the three institution metioned above, Adult learners ca be demotivated heavily on many accounts because unlike children and teenagers, adults have many responsibilities that they must balance against the demands of learning. Because of these responsibilities, adults have barriers against participating in learning. Some of these barriers include lack of time, money, confidence, or interest, lack of information about opportunities to learn, scheduling problems, "red tape," and problems with child care and transportation. Motivation factors can also be a barrier. What motivates adult learners? Typical motivations include a requirement for competence or licensing, an expected (or realized) promotion, job enrichment, a need to maintain old skills or learn new ones, a need to adapt to job changes, or the need to learn in order to comply with company directives. The best way to motivate adult learners is simply to enhance their reasons for enrolling and decrease the barriers. Instructors must learn why their students are enrolled (the motivators); they have to discover what is keeping them from learning. Then the instructors must plan their motivating strategies. A successful strategy includes showing adult learners the relationship between training and an expected promotion.
Another premise being implemented by UNZA, ZAO and PAF about adult learning is that all these institution bear in mind that adults have accumulated a foundation of life experiences and knowledge that may include work-related activities, family responsibilities, and previous education. They directly connect learning to this knowledge/experience base. To help them do so, they usually draw out participants' experience and knowledge which is relevant to the topic. They relate theories and concepts to the participants and recognize the value of experience in learning. An eye open premise being implemented by these institutions about adult learning is that of the view that adults are goal-oriented. Upon enrolling in a course, they usually know what goal they want to attain. They, therefore, appreciate an educational program that is organized and has clearly defined elements. Instructors must show participants how this class will help them attain their goals. This classification of goals and course objectives must be done early in the course.
Another premise being implemented by UNZA, ZAO and PAF about adult learning is that adults are relevancy-oriented. They must see a reason for learning something. Learning has to be applicable to their work or other responsibilities to be of value to them. Therefore, instructors must identify objectives for adult participants before the course begins. This means, also, that theories and concepts must be related to a setting familiar to participants. This need can be fulfilled by letting participants choose projects that reflect their own interests. Adults are practical, focusing on the aspects of a lesson most useful to them in their work. They may not be interested in knowledge for its own sake. Instructors must tell participants explicitly how the lesson will be useful to them on the job. As do all learners, adults need to be shown respect. Instructors must acknowledge the wealth of experiences that adult participants bring to the classroom. These adults should be treated as equals in experience and knowledge and allowed to voice their opinions freely in class.
One common feature demonstrated by these learning institutions is that they facilitate positive re-inforcement in adult education. In these three institutions facilitating these premises for adult learning, they must continue to remember that learning occurs within each individual as a continual process throughout life. People learn at different speeds, so it is natural for them to be anxious or nervous when faced with a learning situation. Positive reinforcement by the instructor can enhance learning, as can proper timing of the instruction. Learning results from stimulation of the senses. In some people, one sense is used more than others to learn or recall information. Instructors should present materials that stimulates as many senses as possible in order to increase their chances of teaching success.
Although they try their best in addressing these issues they neglect certain factors which are important. While motivation and reinforcement are vital for adult learners, retention and transference need to be emphasized. However, with regard to motivation, if the participant does not recognize the need for the information (or has been offended or intimidated), all of the instructor's effort to assist the participant to learn will be in vain. The instructor must establish rapport with participants and prepare them for learning; this provides motivation. Instructors can motivate students via several means like set a feeling or tone for the lesson where instructors should try to establish a friendly, open atmosphere that shows the participants they will help them learn. Set an appropriate level of concern whereby the level of tension must be adjusted to meet the level of importance of the objective. If the material has a high level of importance, a higher level of tension/stress should be established in the class. However, people learn best under low to moderate stress; if the stress is too high, it becomes a barrier to learning. Set an appropriate level of difficulty to which the degree of difficulty should be set high enough to challenge participants but not so high that they become frustrated by information overload. The instruction should predict and reward participation, culminating in success. In addition, participants need specific knowledge of their learning results (feedback ). Feedback must be specific, not general. Participants must also see a reward for learning. The reward does not necessarily have to be monetary; it can be simply a demonstration of benefits to be realized from learning the material. Finally, the participant must be interested in the subject. Interest is directly related to reward. Adults must see the benefit of learning in order to motivate themselves to learn the subject.
One other common aspect implemented by UNZA, ZAO and PAF about adult learning is that of reinforcement. Reinforcement is a very necessary part of the teaching/learning process; through it, instructors encourage correct modes of behavior and performance. Positive reinforcement is normally used by instructors who are teaching participants new skills. As the name implies, positive reinforcement is "good" and reinforces "good" (or positive) behavior. Negative reinforcement is the contingent removal of a noxious stimulus that tends to increase the behavior. The contingent presentation of a noxious stimulus that tends to decrease a behavior is called Punishment. Reinforcing a behavior will never lead to extinction of that behavior by definition. Punishment and Time Out lead to extinction of a particular behavior, but positive or negative reinforcement of that behavior never will. Reinforcement should be part of the teaching-learning process to ensure correct behavior. Instructors need to use it on a frequent and regular basis early in the process to help the students retain what they have learned. Then, they should use reinforcement only to maintain consistent, positive behavior.
Alongside with reinforcement is retention where these institutions UNZA, ZAO and PAF dealing with adult learning must retain information from classes in order to benefit from the learning. The instructors' jobs are not finished until they have assisted the learner in retaining the information. In order for participants to retain the information taught, they must see a meaning or purpose for that information. The must also understand and be able to interpret and apply the information. This understanding includes their ability to assign the correct degree of importance to the material.
The amount of retention will be directly affected by the degree of original learning. Simply stated, if the participants did not learn the material well initially, they will not retain it well either. Retention by the participants is directly affected by their amount of practice during the learning. Instructors should emphasize retention and application. After the students demonstrate correct (desired) performance, they should be urged to practice to maintain the desired performance. Distributed practice is similar in effect to intermittent reinforcement.
Transference is another element. Transfer of learning is the result of training. It is the ability to use the information taught in the course but in a new setting. As with reinforcement, there are two types of transfer: positive and negative. Positive transference, like positive reinforcement, occurs when the participants uses the behavior taught in the course. Negative transference, again like negative reinforcement, occurs when the participants do not do what they are told not to do. This results in a positive (desired) outcome. Transference is most likely to occur in the following situations: Association -- participants can associate the new information with something that they already know. Similarity -- the information is similar to material that participants already know; that is, it revisits a logical framework or pattern. Degree of original learning -- participant's degree of original learning was high. Critical attribute element -- the information learned contains elements that are extremely beneficial (critical) on the job. Although adult learning is relatively new as field of study, it is just as substantial as traditional education and carries and potential for greater success. Of course, the heightened success requires a greater responsibility on the part of the teacher. Additionally, the learners come to the course with precisely defined expectations. Unfortunately, there are barriers to their learning. The best motivators for adult learners are interest and selfish benefit. If they can be shown that the course benefits them pragmatically, they will perform better, and the benefits will be longer lasting.
Another explanation is in line with other scholars like Maclusky. A lot of scholars have written about Maclusky’s theory of adult learning and some of them have critically analyzed his works and gave different comments. How ever, there has been many efforts to construct theories or models that provide some explanation of how and why adults learn in the different age groups. There is also a number of debates from different scholars around the world regarding their perception about learning and some of which have been more successful than others. A few have drawn considerable attention in terms of being referenced or discussed in the literature several times since they were first introduced. Nevertheless, these latter theories especially those which have not been thoroughly tested or developed by various researchers and, subsequently, have remained primarily associated with their originators.
It is evident that McClusky is known because of his Margin theory and his subsequent publications in various fields like gerontology. In relation to this assertion, the scholar Hiemstra says the following;
In the theory of Margin, Howard Y. McClusky, a Professor of Educational Psychology and adult Education at the University of Michigan from 1924 until his death in 1982, looked at adult learning through the eyes of a person trained in experimental psychology with valid and tangible premises. He was long concerned with finding ways to help adults maintain a productive posture in meeting the requirements of living. Early in his career he worked primarily with young adults. Then as he himself aged, his concerns shifted to adults at later ages (Hiemstra, 1981). He focused primarily on adults in retirement his last fifteen years.
Mcclusky’ theory was introduced a long time ago about forty years before he died in 1982 (McClusky, 1963). Mcclusky himself noted that the theory of margin was very was relevant for understanding adults' physical and mental well-being, especially during their later years when various demands or pressures might increase in their lives. McClusky in his theory believed that adulthood involved continuous growth, change, and integration, in which constant effort must be made to wisely use the energy available for meeting normal living responsibilities. However, because people have less than perfect control over many aspects of life, they must always be prepared to meet unpredictable crises or problems. He formulated a formula out of the Margin theory. His formula was expressing a ratio or relationship between the "load" (of living) and the "power" (to carry the load). According to McClusky (1970: 27), load is "the self and social demands required by a person to maintain a minimal level of autonomy.... [Power is] the resources, i.e. [sic] abilities, possessions, position, allies, etc. [sic], which a person can command in coping with load [sic]. In this formula for margin (M), he placed designations of load (L) in the numerator and designations of power (P) in the denominator (M = L/P). In this regard, McClusky’s theory of adult learning was well established with strong defence just on the basis of the formula. All these views were reflecting on the premises of adult education as reflected in the module.
These reflection is vital as he further divided load into two groups of interacting elements, one external and one internal. The external load consists of tasks involved in normal life requirements (family, work, community responsibilities, and so forth). Internal load consists of life expectancies developed by people themselves, such as aspirations, desires, and future expectations. Power consists of a combination of such external resources and capacity as family support, social abilities, and economic abilities. It also includes various internally acquired or accumulated skills and experiences contributing to effective performance, such as resiliency, coping skills, and personality. McClusky (1970). The psychological interpretation of this phrase is that a person's performance in any field and in any way will be directly a function of various load dimensions and values, as well as a capacity to carry the load. Margin can be increased by reducing load or increasing power. McClusky (1963) suggested that surplus power is always needed to provide enough margin or cushion to meet various load requirements and life emergencies.
It should be noted that the theory of margin does not apply to adult learning only. That was just an overview of what is going on in works and in relation to learning circumstances. However, McClusky’s contributions to Adult Learning has been diverse in nature. Mcclusky developed a very comprehensive strategy and understanding of the nature and the way adults learn. Most adult in grasping is more like an adventure to the different life situations in which they are found. Mcclusky therefore, urged instructors to help learners discover aspects of the theory of Margin in both adult learning and other forms of learning. Apart from explaining how adults learn and cope with the different circumstances, McClusky’s theory of adult learning can also serve as a guide to explain some of what is happening throughout life. McClusky (1963) believed that value of the theory was its usefulness in describing varying amounts of Margin that could be involved in the adult adjustment. Such value is directly observable when applying the theory to learning activities by adults in their later years. This is when radical changes in the load-power ratio may take place due to declining financial resources, death of a spouse, and so forth. In mcclusky (1970:146) words, "In the light of our theory therefore [sic], a necessary condition for learning is access to and/or [sic] the activation of a Margin of Power that may be available for application to the processes which the learning situation requires."
For example, student who is married and is working will have a lot of tasks and responsibilities to take care of. The work load will be too much such that the effectiveness will also be affected. When the work load is high, there will be much pressure which later affects effectiveness and the margin in general.
Mcclusky further stressed that the crucial element for meeting learning or other life demands is the ratio between load and power as he say: "Whatever the load and whatever the power (up to a practical level), the crucial element is the surplus or margin of power in excess of load. It is this margin that confers autonomy on the individual, gives him [sic] an opportunity to examine a range of options, and enables him [sic] to reinvest his [sic] psychological capital in growth and development" (McClusky, n.d., p. 330).
McClusky’s theory of adult learning further urges many people to take part in the adult leaning process because the advantage of adult learning is that it provides surplus power and becomes a major force in achieving various goals because everything is well planned in future.
Without any forms of limitations, there are various ways an instructor can unknowingly generate excess "load" for a learner. If an instructor assumes a traditional, authoritarian attitude, learners may feel frustrated or that their opinions are being ignored. “…an instructor may seem disorganized or have distracting mannerisms that serve to discourage the learner. If inappropriate assignments are given or any evaluation guidelines are unclear, some adults will have difficulties. Thus, if an instructor pays little attention to creating an effective learning environment, some adults will experience increased loads due to distracting physical, social, or psychological features” (Hiemstra and Sisco, 1990).
Apart from being an adult learning theory, the Margin theory also can be used as a research framework or tool. Take for instance; Baum (1978) studied widowhood and used Margin theory as an conceptual framework. Gessner (1979) used margin as a theoretical framework for studying nurses' participation in continuing education. Gleit (1976) used the theory to look at potential restrictions to participation in continuing education. Garrison (1986), James (1986), Mikolaj (1983), and Stevenson (1982) have attempted to measure aspects of power and load. For instance, a practical and life case is given by (Hiemstra and Sisco, 1990) who said “a person's performance will be a function of various loads dimensions and values, as well as a capacity to carry the load. Margin can be increased by reducing load or increasing power, suggesting that surplus power is always needed to provide enough margins to meet various load requirements of life emergencies”.
The background of adult education premises cannot be over emphasized. The premises started a long time ago but very few institutions fully respect them. Early formal adult education activities focused on single needs such as reading and writing. Many early programs were started by churches to teach people to read the Bible. When the original purpose was satisfied, programs were often adjusted to meet more general educational needs of the population. Libraries, lecture series, and discussion societies began in various countries during the 18th century. As more people experienced the benefits of education, they began to participate increasingly in social, political, and occupational activities. By the 19th century, adult education was developing as a formal, organized movement in the Western world, Garrison (1986).
It should be noted here that the largest early program in the U.S., the Lyceum, founded (1826) in Massachusetts by Josiah Holbrook, was a local association of men and women with some schooling who wanted to expand their own education while working to establish a public school system. The Lyceum movement encouraged the development of other adult education institutions such as libraries, evening schools, and endowed lecture series. By midcentury, employers and philanthropists began to endow institutions such as the Cooper Union for the Advancement of Science and Art (1859) in New York City and the Peabody Institute (1857) in Baltimore, Maryland, for adult education. Large audiences were attracted to the Chautauqua movement, which began (1874) in New York State as a summer training program for Sunday school teachers and evolved into a traveling lecture series and summer school. Chautauqua was the prototype of institutions established to further popular education in the U.S. By 1876, universities started offering extension programs that brought education directly to the public.
Adult education was an early concern of the U.S. government. In 1862 Abraham Lincoln signed the Morrill Act, which led to the establishment of land-grant colleges offering training in agriculture and the mechanical arts. The need to develop and provide instruction in scientific farming techniques led to the establishment (1914) of the Federal Extension Service of the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The pattern of demonstration farming and extension advisers created by cooperative extension has been used to improve farming all over the world, Garrison (1986). The rapid increase in immigration into the United States during the early 20th century resulted in the establishment of more English and citizenship classes and other Americanization programs for immigrants. During the Great Depression of the 1930s, the federal government established education projects as part of its work-relief programs. Public evening classes became the most popular means of adult education, allowing people to earn a living during the day and pursue vocational and intellectual interests in their spare time. Some institutions, such as the New School for Social Research in New York City, were devoted almost entirely to education for adults. After World War II, the adult education movement in the U.S. received a major impetus with the passage of the G.I. Bill of Rights, which enabled many veterans of World War II, and of later military service, to complete their education. The Higher Education Acts of 1966 and 1986 both reflected the growing importance of adult, part-time college students; they authorized a separate title devoted to continuing education and several financial-aid programs. Universities even began to offer graduate programs in this new field.
In Zambia today, the concept of adult education is not very pronounced to the public. However, there is a glowing popularity especially as far as adult literacy is concerned. Beside this development, there is no much effort as in following up the ideals, principles that govern adult education programmes in the world. The premises for such programmes are strictly respective and this explains why it is not very popular in some societies in the world.
The university of Zambia, Zambian open university and people’s action forum who are facilitating and implementing some adult learning premises do understand that there are certain facets which need to be considered. They understand that adults have a zeal for learning and must want to learn without being forced as Hoffer says “The central task of education is to implant a will and facility for learning; it should produce not learned but learning people. The truly human society is a learning society, where grandparents, parents and children are students together,” Eric Hoffer. Adults learn by doing just like children or something practical or problem centered. Adults learning focuses on problems and these problems must realistic and therefore, experience affects adult learning. Adults learn best in informal situations. Therefore, there is also need to promote their self esteem positively by integrating new ideas with the existing knowledge and above all, there is need to show respect for individual learners by capitalizing on their experiences.
It can be concluded that this paper has identified and showed three institutions or organizations in Zambia which are using some premises given in the module, why, how and where which are advancing some prescribed adult education premises in Zambia. The paper has also shown that there is need for teachers to provide exclusive time for language learning, create a learning environment in which the learner feels safe, secure and accepted. Teachers or learning facilitators in these three institutions in Zambia must provide instructions in the context of authentic literacy experiences cognizant of each learner’s level when selecting instructional materials with respect to the premises in the module (page 5). The three institutions however, must also look at adult education from a more practical perspective by relating the experiences of each learner’s cultural background to the learning experiences.
REFERENCES
Baum, J. "An Exploration of Widowhood: Implications for Adult Educators." In Proceedings of the Annual Adult Education Research Conference. San Antonio , Texas , 1978.
Cross, K. P. Beyond the Open Door: New Students to Higher Education. San Francisco : Jossey-Bass, 1971. .
Cross, K. P. Adults as Learners: Increasing Participation and Facilitating Learning. San Francisco : Jossey-Bass, 1981.
Hiemstra, R. "The Contributions of Howard Yale McClusky to an Evolving Discipline of Educational Gerontology." Educational Gerontology, 1981, 6, 209-226.
James, J. M. "Instructor-Generated Load: An Inquiry Based on McClusky’s Concept of Margin." Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Wyoming , 1986.
Knox, A. B. (ed.) Enhancing Proficiencies of Continuing Educators. New Directions for Continuing Education, no. 1, San Francisco : Jossey-Bass, 1979.
Knox, A. B. Helping Adults Learn. San Francisco : Jossey-Bass, 1986.
McClusky, H. Y. "The Course of the adult Life Span." In W. C. Hallenbeck (ed.), Psychology of Adults. Chicago : Adult Education Association of the U.S.A. , 1963.
Roger Hiemstra is professor of Adult learning and instructional design at Syracuse University , Syracuse , NY .
Mechanical and Organic Solidarity.
Mechanical and Organic Solidarity.
Solidarity is the integration, and degree and type of integration, shown by a society or group with people and their neighbours. It refers to the ties in a society or social relations that bind people to one another. The term is generally employed in sociology and the other social sciences. What forms the basis of solidarity varies between societies. In simple societies it may be mainly based around kinship and shared values. In more complex societies there are various theories as to what contributes to a sense of social solidarity. The principle aim of this paper is to show with concrete examples from a particular culture and explain the meaning of the terms mechanical and organic solidarity. It will start with a brief introduction followed by the main body and then end with the conclusion.
Durkheim ( 1933:226) says "Social life comes from a double source, the likeness of consciences and the division of social labor, and therefore solidarity is a manifest of specialization in the meeting society needs." Mechanical Solidarity is a social cohesion based upon the likeness and similarities among individuals in a society, and largely dependent on common rituals and routines. Common among prehistoric and pre-agricultural societies, and lessens in predominance as modernity increases. This mechanical solidarity as he called it occurred when all members of a society performed the same or nearly the same tasks as all others in a society. If one person were to die and not be replaced, the society would not change, because all other members did exactly the same thing as the member that died. The collective conscience of a mechanical society is identical among all members, and the bond derives not from dependence on other individuals, but from the dependence on the total social system. Organic Solidarity refers to a social cohesion based upon the dependence individuals in more advanced society have on each other. Common among industrial societies as the division of labor increases. Though individuals perform different tasks and often have different values and interests, the order and very survival of society depends on their reliance on each other to perform their specific task. Durkheim's primary interest was what happened as societies begin to modernize, when they begin to industrialize and labor becomes increasingly specialized. Durkheim calls the new form of solidarity resulting from modernization organic solidarity. In modern, industrial societies, labor is tremendously divided. Individuals no longer perform the same tasks, have the same interests, nor necessarily share the same perspectives on life. But Durkheim quickly points out that this does not cause a society to fail or disintegrate. Organic solidarity is formed. Like the organs within an animal, individuals perform certain specific functions, but rely on the well-being and successful performance of other individuals. If one organ fails, the rest of them fail as well. A body--or in this case a society--cannot function at all if one part crumbles. This reliance upon each other for social (and even physical) survival is the source of organic soldarity, according to Durkheim.
Etymologically, the concept of solidarity is related to other aspects of life like in physics, chemistry and biology especially of molecules. "The social molecules that cohere in this way can act together only in so far as they have no action of their own, as with the molecules of inorganic bodies. That is why we propose to call this form of solidarity 'mechanical. In societies where this type of solidarity [mechanical] is highly developed, the individual is not his own master...Solidarity is, literally something which the society possesses.” Giddens (1972:139). There is then, a social structure of determined nature to which mechanical solidarity corresponds. What characterizes it is a system of segments homogeneous and similar to each other. Quite different is the structure of societies where organic solidarity is preponderant. They are constituted, not by a repitition of similar, homogeneous segments, but by a system of different organs each of which has a special role, and which are themselves formed of differentiated parts. In one case as in the other, the structure derives from the division of labor and its solidarity. Each part of the animal, having become an organ, has its proper sphere of action where it moves independently without imposing itself upon others. But, from another point of view, they depend more upon one another than in a colony, since they cannot separate without perishing."
Gidens further says that "...Even where society relies most completely upon the division of labor, it does not become a jumble of juxtaposed atoms, between which it can establish only external, transient contacts. Rather the members are united by ties which extend deeper and far beyond the short moments during which the exchange is made. Each of the functions that they exercise is, in a fixed way, dependent upon others, and with them forms a solidary system. Giddens, (1972:226)
It should be noted that according to Émile Durkheim, the types of social solidarity correlate with types of society. Durkheim introduced the terms "mechanical" and "organic solidarity" as part of his theory of the development of societies in The Division of Labour in Society (1893). In a society exhibiting mechanical solidarity, its cohesion and integration comes from the homogeneity of individuals people feel connected through similar work, educational and religious training, and lifestyle. This can be manifested in most Zambian communities especially those in the rural through community work. Most people in the rural Zambia feel much connected to the operations of community work.
Similarly in Zambia, Mechanical solidarity normally operates in "traditional" and small scale societies . In simpler societies like that of a tribal, solidarity is usually based on kinship ties of familial networks. Organic solidarity comes from the interdependence that arises from specialization of work and the complementarities between people, a development which occurs in "modern" and "industrial" societies. It is social cohesion based upon the dependence individuals have on each other in more advanced societies. Although individuals perform different tasks and often have different values and interest, the order and very solidarity of society depends on their reliance on each other to perform their specified tasks. Organic here is referring to the interdependence of the component parts. Thus, social solidarity is maintained in more complex societies through the interdependence of its component parts. For example, farmers produce the food to feed the factory workers who produce the tractors that allow the farmer to produce the food).
Ideally, the Zambian solidarity kinds can be seen from the two types of solidarity that is distinguished by morphological and demographic features, type of norms in existence, and the intensity and content of the conscience collective.
Mechanical and organic solidarity
Feature Mechanical solidarity Organic solidarity
Morphological (structural) basis Based on resemblances (predominant in less advanced societies)
Segmental type (first clan-based, later territorial)
Little interdependence (social bonds relatively weak)
Relatively low volume of population
Relatively low material and moral density Based on division of labour (predominately in more advanced societies)
Organized type (fusion of markets and growth of cities)
Much interdependency (social bonds relatively strong)
Relatively high volume of population
Relatively high material and moral density
Types of norms (typified by law) Rules with repressive sanctions
Prevalence of penal law Rules with restitutive sanctions
Prevalence of cooperative law (civil, commercial, procedural, administrative and constitutional law)
Formal features of conscience collective High volume
High intensity
High determinateness
Collective authority absolute Low volume
Low intensity
Low determinateness
More room for individual initiative and reflection
Content of conscience collective Highly religious
Transcendental (superior to human interests and beyond discussion)
Attaching supreme value to society and interests of society as a whole
Concrete and specific Increasingly secular
Human-orientated (concerned with human interests and open to discussion)
Attaching supreme value to individual dignity, equality of opportunity, work ethic and social justice
Abstract and general
This table suggests that there are a number of progressive development of individualism, the dispersive effects of which can only be prevented for a time, and by artificial means by the action of the state, it is essentially a mechanical aggregate. In line with this view, Durkheim believed that Ferdinand Tönnies saw individualism as working against moral order, people become unattached like atoms flowing in space suggesting that the only thing holding people together, prevented relationships from fracturing, and holds people to society was the imposition of order and coherence of the state. Arguing that the life of social agglomerates is just as natural, and is no less internal as that of small groupings. Preindustrial societies are associated to mechanical and industrial societies as organic and this view is opposing Toennies theories by using opposite terminology. Although the bonds of mechanical solidarity were based on "a more or less organized totality of beliefs and sentiments common to all the members of the group," this gave way in industrial society to potent new forces that were characterised by heightened complexity and differentiation, an increased dependence on society, and, seemingly paradoxically at first glance, a growing level of individual autonomy.
Many countries experience solidarity and it should be noted that international solidarity is not an act of charity but an act of unity between allies fighting on different terrains toward the same objectives. Unlike solidarity, which is horizontal and takes place between equals, charity is top-down, humiliating those who receive it and never challenging the implicit power relations.
Solidarity is not a matter of altruism. Solidarity comes from the inability to tolerate the affront to our own integrity of passive or active collaboration in the oppression of others, and from the deep recognition of our most expansive self-interest. From the recognition that, like it or not, our liberation is bound up with that of every other being on the planet, and that politically, spiritually, in our heart of hearts we know anything else is unaffordable. No man is an island, entire of itself; every man is a piece of the continent, a part of the main. If a clod be washed away by the sea, Europe is the less, as well as if a promontory were, as well as if a manor of thy friend's or of thine own were: any man's death diminishes me, because I am involved in mankind, and therefore never send to know for whom the bells tolls; it tolls for thee. Neither can we call this a begging of misery, or a borrowing of misery, as though we were not miserable enough of ourselves, but must fetch in more from the next house, in taking upon us the misery of our neighbours. Truly it were an excusable covetousness if we did, for affliction is a treasure, and scarce any man hath enough of it. No man hath affliction enough that is not matured and ripened by and made fit for God by that affliction. If a man carry treasure in bullion, or in a wedge of gold, and have none coined into current money, his treasure will not defray him as he travels. Tribulation is treasure in the nature of it, but it is not current money in the use of it, except we get nearer and nearer our home, heaven, by it. Another man may be sick too, and sick to death, and this affliction may lie in his bowels, as gold in a mine, and be of no use to him; but this bell, that tells me of his affliction, digs out and applies that gold to me: if by this consideration of another's danger I take mine own into contemplation, and so secure myself, by making my recourse to my God, who is our only security.
It can be concluded that the paper has discussed the subject matter with respect to the question. It was pointed out that mechanical Solidarity is a social cohesion based upon the likeness and similarities among individuals in a society, and largely dependent on common rituals and routines. Organic Solidarity on the other hand refers to a social cohesion based upon the dependence individuals in more advanced society have on each other. In Zambian, it is common among industrial societies especially in Lusaka as the division of labor increases.
References
Durkheim, E. (1933). The Division of Labor in Society Translated by George Simpson. New York: The Free Press.
Giddens, A. (1972). Emile Durkheim: Selected Writings. London: Cambridge University Press.
Jary, David; Julia Jary (1991), Collins Dictionary of Sociology, Glasgow: Harper Collins, p. 774, ISBN 0-00-470804-0
Solidarity is the integration, and degree and type of integration, shown by a society or group with people and their neighbours. It refers to the ties in a society or social relations that bind people to one another. The term is generally employed in sociology and the other social sciences. What forms the basis of solidarity varies between societies. In simple societies it may be mainly based around kinship and shared values. In more complex societies there are various theories as to what contributes to a sense of social solidarity. The principle aim of this paper is to show with concrete examples from a particular culture and explain the meaning of the terms mechanical and organic solidarity. It will start with a brief introduction followed by the main body and then end with the conclusion.
Durkheim ( 1933:226) says "Social life comes from a double source, the likeness of consciences and the division of social labor, and therefore solidarity is a manifest of specialization in the meeting society needs." Mechanical Solidarity is a social cohesion based upon the likeness and similarities among individuals in a society, and largely dependent on common rituals and routines. Common among prehistoric and pre-agricultural societies, and lessens in predominance as modernity increases. This mechanical solidarity as he called it occurred when all members of a society performed the same or nearly the same tasks as all others in a society. If one person were to die and not be replaced, the society would not change, because all other members did exactly the same thing as the member that died. The collective conscience of a mechanical society is identical among all members, and the bond derives not from dependence on other individuals, but from the dependence on the total social system. Organic Solidarity refers to a social cohesion based upon the dependence individuals in more advanced society have on each other. Common among industrial societies as the division of labor increases. Though individuals perform different tasks and often have different values and interests, the order and very survival of society depends on their reliance on each other to perform their specific task. Durkheim's primary interest was what happened as societies begin to modernize, when they begin to industrialize and labor becomes increasingly specialized. Durkheim calls the new form of solidarity resulting from modernization organic solidarity. In modern, industrial societies, labor is tremendously divided. Individuals no longer perform the same tasks, have the same interests, nor necessarily share the same perspectives on life. But Durkheim quickly points out that this does not cause a society to fail or disintegrate. Organic solidarity is formed. Like the organs within an animal, individuals perform certain specific functions, but rely on the well-being and successful performance of other individuals. If one organ fails, the rest of them fail as well. A body--or in this case a society--cannot function at all if one part crumbles. This reliance upon each other for social (and even physical) survival is the source of organic soldarity, according to Durkheim.
Etymologically, the concept of solidarity is related to other aspects of life like in physics, chemistry and biology especially of molecules. "The social molecules that cohere in this way can act together only in so far as they have no action of their own, as with the molecules of inorganic bodies. That is why we propose to call this form of solidarity 'mechanical. In societies where this type of solidarity [mechanical] is highly developed, the individual is not his own master...Solidarity is, literally something which the society possesses.” Giddens (1972:139). There is then, a social structure of determined nature to which mechanical solidarity corresponds. What characterizes it is a system of segments homogeneous and similar to each other. Quite different is the structure of societies where organic solidarity is preponderant. They are constituted, not by a repitition of similar, homogeneous segments, but by a system of different organs each of which has a special role, and which are themselves formed of differentiated parts. In one case as in the other, the structure derives from the division of labor and its solidarity. Each part of the animal, having become an organ, has its proper sphere of action where it moves independently without imposing itself upon others. But, from another point of view, they depend more upon one another than in a colony, since they cannot separate without perishing."
Gidens further says that "...Even where society relies most completely upon the division of labor, it does not become a jumble of juxtaposed atoms, between which it can establish only external, transient contacts. Rather the members are united by ties which extend deeper and far beyond the short moments during which the exchange is made. Each of the functions that they exercise is, in a fixed way, dependent upon others, and with them forms a solidary system. Giddens, (1972:226)
It should be noted that according to Émile Durkheim, the types of social solidarity correlate with types of society. Durkheim introduced the terms "mechanical" and "organic solidarity" as part of his theory of the development of societies in The Division of Labour in Society (1893). In a society exhibiting mechanical solidarity, its cohesion and integration comes from the homogeneity of individuals people feel connected through similar work, educational and religious training, and lifestyle. This can be manifested in most Zambian communities especially those in the rural through community work. Most people in the rural Zambia feel much connected to the operations of community work.
Similarly in Zambia, Mechanical solidarity normally operates in "traditional" and small scale societies . In simpler societies like that of a tribal, solidarity is usually based on kinship ties of familial networks. Organic solidarity comes from the interdependence that arises from specialization of work and the complementarities between people, a development which occurs in "modern" and "industrial" societies. It is social cohesion based upon the dependence individuals have on each other in more advanced societies. Although individuals perform different tasks and often have different values and interest, the order and very solidarity of society depends on their reliance on each other to perform their specified tasks. Organic here is referring to the interdependence of the component parts. Thus, social solidarity is maintained in more complex societies through the interdependence of its component parts. For example, farmers produce the food to feed the factory workers who produce the tractors that allow the farmer to produce the food).
Ideally, the Zambian solidarity kinds can be seen from the two types of solidarity that is distinguished by morphological and demographic features, type of norms in existence, and the intensity and content of the conscience collective.
Mechanical and organic solidarity
Feature Mechanical solidarity Organic solidarity
Morphological (structural) basis Based on resemblances (predominant in less advanced societies)
Segmental type (first clan-based, later territorial)
Little interdependence (social bonds relatively weak)
Relatively low volume of population
Relatively low material and moral density Based on division of labour (predominately in more advanced societies)
Organized type (fusion of markets and growth of cities)
Much interdependency (social bonds relatively strong)
Relatively high volume of population
Relatively high material and moral density
Types of norms (typified by law) Rules with repressive sanctions
Prevalence of penal law Rules with restitutive sanctions
Prevalence of cooperative law (civil, commercial, procedural, administrative and constitutional law)
Formal features of conscience collective High volume
High intensity
High determinateness
Collective authority absolute Low volume
Low intensity
Low determinateness
More room for individual initiative and reflection
Content of conscience collective Highly religious
Transcendental (superior to human interests and beyond discussion)
Attaching supreme value to society and interests of society as a whole
Concrete and specific Increasingly secular
Human-orientated (concerned with human interests and open to discussion)
Attaching supreme value to individual dignity, equality of opportunity, work ethic and social justice
Abstract and general
This table suggests that there are a number of progressive development of individualism, the dispersive effects of which can only be prevented for a time, and by artificial means by the action of the state, it is essentially a mechanical aggregate. In line with this view, Durkheim believed that Ferdinand Tönnies saw individualism as working against moral order, people become unattached like atoms flowing in space suggesting that the only thing holding people together, prevented relationships from fracturing, and holds people to society was the imposition of order and coherence of the state. Arguing that the life of social agglomerates is just as natural, and is no less internal as that of small groupings. Preindustrial societies are associated to mechanical and industrial societies as organic and this view is opposing Toennies theories by using opposite terminology. Although the bonds of mechanical solidarity were based on "a more or less organized totality of beliefs and sentiments common to all the members of the group," this gave way in industrial society to potent new forces that were characterised by heightened complexity and differentiation, an increased dependence on society, and, seemingly paradoxically at first glance, a growing level of individual autonomy.
Many countries experience solidarity and it should be noted that international solidarity is not an act of charity but an act of unity between allies fighting on different terrains toward the same objectives. Unlike solidarity, which is horizontal and takes place between equals, charity is top-down, humiliating those who receive it and never challenging the implicit power relations.
Solidarity is not a matter of altruism. Solidarity comes from the inability to tolerate the affront to our own integrity of passive or active collaboration in the oppression of others, and from the deep recognition of our most expansive self-interest. From the recognition that, like it or not, our liberation is bound up with that of every other being on the planet, and that politically, spiritually, in our heart of hearts we know anything else is unaffordable. No man is an island, entire of itself; every man is a piece of the continent, a part of the main. If a clod be washed away by the sea, Europe is the less, as well as if a promontory were, as well as if a manor of thy friend's or of thine own were: any man's death diminishes me, because I am involved in mankind, and therefore never send to know for whom the bells tolls; it tolls for thee. Neither can we call this a begging of misery, or a borrowing of misery, as though we were not miserable enough of ourselves, but must fetch in more from the next house, in taking upon us the misery of our neighbours. Truly it were an excusable covetousness if we did, for affliction is a treasure, and scarce any man hath enough of it. No man hath affliction enough that is not matured and ripened by and made fit for God by that affliction. If a man carry treasure in bullion, or in a wedge of gold, and have none coined into current money, his treasure will not defray him as he travels. Tribulation is treasure in the nature of it, but it is not current money in the use of it, except we get nearer and nearer our home, heaven, by it. Another man may be sick too, and sick to death, and this affliction may lie in his bowels, as gold in a mine, and be of no use to him; but this bell, that tells me of his affliction, digs out and applies that gold to me: if by this consideration of another's danger I take mine own into contemplation, and so secure myself, by making my recourse to my God, who is our only security.
It can be concluded that the paper has discussed the subject matter with respect to the question. It was pointed out that mechanical Solidarity is a social cohesion based upon the likeness and similarities among individuals in a society, and largely dependent on common rituals and routines. Organic Solidarity on the other hand refers to a social cohesion based upon the dependence individuals in more advanced society have on each other. In Zambian, it is common among industrial societies especially in Lusaka as the division of labor increases.
References
Durkheim, E. (1933). The Division of Labor in Society Translated by George Simpson. New York: The Free Press.
Giddens, A. (1972). Emile Durkheim: Selected Writings. London: Cambridge University Press.
Jary, David; Julia Jary (1991), Collins Dictionary of Sociology, Glasgow: Harper Collins, p. 774, ISBN 0-00-470804-0
Challenges of Carbon emission to humanity
Challenges of Carbon emission to humanity
Its true that carbon emission has become a central issue of human concern. It is also true that it has a lot of effects to humanity and nature as we. While there are proposed measures to control carbon emission, it is mainly caused by the humans themselves due to their activities. The amount of carbon dioxide (CO2) released into the atmosphere has been rising extensively during the last 150 years. As a result, it has exceeded the amount sequestered in biomass, the oceans, and other sinks. World scientists have noted that there has been a climb in carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere of about 280 ppm in 1850 to 364 ppm in 1998, mainly due to human activities during and after the industrial revolution, which began in 1850. Humans have been increasing the amount of carbon dioxide in air by burning of fossil fuels, by producing cement and by carrying out land clearing and forest combustion. About 22% of the current atmospheric CO2 concentrations exist due to these human activities, considered that there is no change in natural amounts of carbon dioxide. We will take a closer look at these effects in the next few paragraphs and the possible challenges and solution. The principle aim of this paper is to discuss the assertion that Carbon emission has become a central issue of human concern. It will explain the challenges it posses to humanity and internationally binding solutions that has been proposed. The paper will begin by exploring the nature of carbon emission causes, its problems and how it can be controlled as proposed by a number of scholars.
Studies has shown that carbon emission is caused by Carbon dioxide of chemical formula CO2 which is a chemical compound composed of two oxygen atoms covalently bonded to a single carbon atom, Ralph (1999). It is a gas at standard temperature and pressure and exists in Earth's atmosphere in this state. CO2 is a trace gas comprising 0.039% of the atmosphere. As part of the carbon cycle known as photosynthesis, plants, algae, and cyanobacteria absorb carbon dioxide, sunlight, and water to produce carbohydrate energy for themselves and oxygen as a waste product. By contrast, during respiration they emit carbon dioxide, as do all other living things that depend either directly or indirectly on plants for food. Carbon dioxide is also generated as a by-product of combustion; emitted from volcanoes, hot springs, and geysers; and freed from carbonate rocks by dissolution suggesting that some causes of carbon emission cannot be controlled because they are natural. As of October 2010, carbon dioxide in the Earth's atmosphere is at a concentration of 388 ppm by volume. Atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide fluctuate slightly with the change of the seasons, driven primarily by seasonal plant growth in the Northern Hemisphere. Concentrations of carbon dioxide fall during the northern spring and summer as plants consume the gas, and rise during the northern autumn and winter as plants go dormant, die and decay. Taking all this into account, the concentration of CO2 grew by about 2 ppm in 2009. Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas as it transmits visible light but absorbs strongly in the infrared and near-infrared (Ralph, 1999, Salvado, 1992).
The challenges posed by carbon emission to humanity have very serious negative effects. Many years ago when technology was not in abundance, carbon emissions were never a challenge. But todsy the increase in technology has changed a number of things world wide affecting humanity in every way. Many years ago terms like green living and carbon neutral were commonly uttered and rarely promoted, it was decided that enough was enough with what was there. Everyone was doing this or was on a mission to communicate the message to every home and business that they can make a difference in reversing the negative effects of carbon emissions and otherwise destructive behavior and this trend can be brought in today. It can make a lot of sense in reducing or solving this problem. Although the eras are different from today’s, it felt that the talk was right, but the vehicle did not exist to any great degree thats where we come in. An accessible, non-intimidating way to make a difference where it matters most.
Carbon emission has caused a lot of challenges and trouble in nature like trees which in turn affects human life. The environment and humans are on a dangerous collision course. Our population grows, we produce more, we displace species and develop over existing and often fragile ecosystems to accommodate our growth, we consume resources without adequately replacing them then we manage to spit what we don’t need back out in the form of harmful emissions. We are already reading about the lack of global vegetation to adequately absorb the carbon emissions we are producing and our collective response it to further reduce the vegetation to accommodate our own needs. If we can reduce carbon emissions and bring back more vegetation, we can begin to achieve harmony between the earth and its inhabitants, Chris (1997).
Hopkins (2003) says the challenges of carbon emission has caused us to live in the limelight. Environmental concerns have finally made their way into the realm of social and, in turn, political relevance over the last decade. The environment is indeed in the limelight of social and political discussion. While those in government try to figure out how to write and enforce laws to balance both supporting the economy and achieving environmental sustainability, the private sector is free to start without them. There has never been a time where the environment is more pertinent to everyday discussion. To not capitalize on this opportunity and attempt to change the daily behavior of those willing to listen would be an opportunity squandered by those who understand the need to fix what is increasingly becoming the greatest societal crisis in the history of mankind. A wise man once said, If you choose not to decide, you still have made a choice. It is your decision, your choice to make a difference or not.
Measures to control the challenge of carbon emission have been in put in many government areas. Global Carbon Care seeks out carbon emission reduction or sequestration programs that provide an additional and sustainable benefit to the battle against the negative effects of carbon emissions. We focus on projects that meet Gold Standard or equivalent standards to ensure that the projects you help fund provide the greatest impact in the battle to reduce the presence of carbon emissions.
Those working at Global Carbon Care have faith in the general goodness and want of mankind to care for and respect the planet we all share. They have also not nave to the fact that a voluntary carbon offset is not high on the list of priorities for those without the means to do so. They focus on projects that meet Gold Standard or equivalent standards to ensure that the projects you help fund provide the greatest impact in the battle to reduce the presence of carbon emissions.
ScienceDaily (Jan. 4, 2008) a Stanford scientist has spelled out for the first time the direct links between increased levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and increases in human mortality, using a state-of-the-art computer model of the atmosphere that incorporates scores of physical and chemical environmental processes. The new findings come to light just after the Environmental Protection Agency's recent ruling against states setting specific emission standards for this greenhouse gas based in part on the lack of data showing the link between carbon dioxide emissions and their health effects.
While it has long been known that carbon dioxide emissions contribute to climate change, the new study details how for each increase of one degree Celsius caused by carbon dioxide, the resulting air pollution would lead annually to about a thousand additional deaths and many more cases of respiratory illness and asthma in many parts of the world like Zambia specically in Lusaka and copperbelt, the United States, china and other countries, according to the paper by Mark Jacobson, a professor of civil and environmental engineering at Stanford. Worldwide, upward of 20,000 air-pollution-related deaths per year per degree Celsius may be due to this greenhouse gas from cars and other industries, Ralph (1999). "This is a cause and effect relationship, not just a correlation," said Jacobson of his study, which on Dec. 24 was accepted for publication in Geophysical Research Letters. The study is the first specifically to isolate carbon dioxide's effect from that of other global-warming agents and to find quantitatively that chemical and meteorological changes due to carbon dioxide itself increase mortality due to increased ozone, particles and carcinogens in the air."
Jacobson said that the research has particular implications for many parts of the world. This study finds that the effects of carbon dioxide's warming are most significant where the pollution is already severe. Given that USA California is home to six of the 10 U.S. cities with the worst air quality, the state is likely to bear an increasingly disproportionate burden of death if no new restrictions are placed on carbon dioxide emissions. This also may apply in many other parts of the world where this apply.
On Dec. 19, the Environmental Protection Agency denied countries and 16 other states a waiver that would have allowed the states to set their own emission standards for carbon dioxide, which are not currently regulated. The EPA denied the waiver partly on the grounds that no special circumstances existed to warrant an exception for the states. Stephen L. Johnson, the EPA administrator, was widely quoted as saying that California's petition was denied because the state had failed to prove the "extraordinary and compelling conditions" required to qualify for a waiver. While previous published research has focused on the global effect on pollution--but not health--of all the greenhouse gases combined, the EPA noted that, under the Clean Air Act, it has to be shown that there is a reasonable anticipation of a specific pollutant endangering public health in the United States for the agency to regulate that pollutant.
Jacobson's paper offers concrete evidence that many states with a lot of carbon technologies is facing a particularly dire situation if carbon dioxide emissions increase. "With six of the 10 most polluted cities in the nation being in USA and China, that alone creates a special circumstance for the state," he said, explaining that the health-related effects of carbon dioxide emissions are most pronounced in areas that already have significant pollution. As such, increased warming due to carbon dioxide will worsen people's health in those cities at a much faster clip than elsewhere in the nation.
According to Jacobson, more than 30 percent of the 1,000 excess deaths (mean death rate value) due to each degree Celsius increase caused by carbon dioxide occurred in California, which has a population of about 12 percent of the United States. This indicates a much higher effect of carbon dioxide-induced warming on California health than that of the nation as a whole.
Jacobson added that much of the population of the United States already has been directly affected by climate change through the air they have inhaled over the last few decades and that, of course, the health effects would grow worse if temperatures continue to rise. Jacobson's work stands apart from previous research in that it uses a computer model of the atmosphere that takes into account many feedbacks between climate change and air pollution not considered in previous studies. Developed by Jacobson over the last 18 years, it is considered by many to be the most complex and complete atmospheric model worldwide. It incorporates principles of gas and particle emissions and transport, gas chemistry, particle production and evolution, ocean processes, soil processes, and the atmospheric effects of rain, winds, sunlight, heat and clouds, among other factors.
For this study, Jacobson used the computer model to determine the amounts of ozone and airborne particles that result from temperature increases, caused by increases in carbon dioxide emissions. Ozone causes and worsens respiratory and cardiovascular illnesses, emphysema and asthma, and many published studies have associated increased ozone with higher mortality. "[Ozone] is a very corrosive gas, it erodes rubber and statues," Jacobson said. "It cracks tires. So you can imagine what it does to your lungs in high enough concentrations." Particles are responsible for cardiovascular and respiratory illness and asthma.
Jacobson arrived at his results of the impact of carbon dioxide globally and, at higher resolution, over the United States by modeling the changes that would occur when all current human and natural gas and particle emissions were considered versus considering all such emissions except human-emitted carbon dioxide.
Jacobson simultaneously calculated the effects of increasing temperatures on pollution. He observed two important effects: Higher temperatures due to carbon dioxide increased the chemical rate of ozone production in urban areas and secondly, increased water vapor due to carbon dioxide-induced higher temperatures boosted chemical ozone production even more in urban areas.
Interestingly, neither effect was so important under the low pollution conditions typical of rural regions, though other factors, such as higher organic gas emissions from vegetation, affected ozone in low-pollution areas. Higher emissions of organic gases also increased the quantity of particles in the air, as organic gases can chemically react to form particles.
And in general, where there was an increase in water vapor, particles that were present became more deadly, as they swelled from absorption of water. "That added moisture allows other gases to dissolve in the particles--certain acid gases, like nitric acid, sulfuric acid and hydrochloric acid," Jacobson said. That increases the toxicity of the particles, which are already a harmful component of air pollution.
Jacobson also found that air temperatures rose more rapidly due to carbon dioxide than did ground temperatures, changing the vertical temperature profile, which decreased pollution dispersion, thereby concentrating particles near where they formed.
In the final stage of the study, Jacobson used the computer model to factor in the spatially varying population of the United States with the health effects that have been demonstrated to be associated with the aforementioned pollutants."The simulations accounted for the changes in ozone and particles through chemistry, transport, clouds, emissions and other processes that affect pollution," Jacobson said. "Carbon dioxide definitely caused these changes, because that was the only input that was varied. Ultimately, you inhale a greater abundance of deleterious chemicals due to carbon dioxide and the climate change associated with it, and the link appears quite solid," he said. "The logical next step is to reduce carbon dioxide: That would reduce its warming effect and improve the health of people in the world and around the cities who are currently suffering from air pollution health problems associated with it," (Jacobson 1992).
Due to this challenge, many people have become too focused on the effects that carbon dioxide emissions have on global warming, and have forgotten the many other negative consequences of this pollutant. The massive amounts of carbon dioxide humans put into the atmosphere each year have dire effects on human health. These carbon emissions also have a large impact on the world’s oceans – affecting ocean acidity and having drastic consequences for marine life or people working in the oceans.
Carbon emission affects the lives of the marines and those working along the oceans because it causes acidification in the oceans. The ocean is important to the carbon cycle and has absorbed about half of the carbon emissions created by humans since the Industrial Revolution. This absorbed carbon dioxide affects ocean chemistry, which in turn affects marine life. As Marah Hardt and Carl Safina describe in the June 24, 2008 Yale Forum on Climate Change and the Media article “Covering Ocean Acidification: Chemistry and Considerations” the ocean has a pH of 8.06, making it slightly alkaline. However, carbon dioxide [CO2] reacts with seawater [H2O] to create carbonic acid [H2CO3]. This reaction releases hydrogen ions [H+] which makes the ocean more acidic. The acidity of a solution is measured using the pH scale, which measures the amount of hydrogen ions [H+] in a solution.
Studies has explained how carbon dioxide emissions affect marine life that relies on calcium carbonate to live. These creatures include corals, mollusks, calcareous algae, and echinoderms such as sea stars and sea urchins. These creatures take up carbonate from the ocean to form calcium carbonate, the building block these creatures use to form their skeletons. However, as people create more carbon emissions and more carbon dioxide enters the ocean, there is less carbonate to go around. This is because of the hydrogen ions released when carbon dioxide mixes with seawater. The hydrogen ions [H+] bind to carbonate [CO32-] to form bicarbonate [HCO3-]. This results in less carbonate for creatures such as corals to use, thus reducing the growth of corals and other marine life. In turn this has a profound effect on the marine food web.
Ralph (1999) and Salvado (1992) says Carbon emissions affect the ability of corals to grow and maintain their structures. Excessive carbon dioxide is also affecting the symbiotic relationship corals have with algae, a relationship necessary for corals to survive. As Michael Perry describes in the October 28, 2008 Reuters article “Rising CO2 accelerates coral bleaching: study”, increased carbon emissions are destroying coral reefs. He notes an Australian study that shows coralline algae to be extremely sensitive to increased carbon dioxide levels. Increased carbon dioxide leads to coral bleaching, which means algae are leaving their corals, resulting in coral death.
Ralph (1999) and Salvado have stressed on the Importance of Reducing Carbon Dioxide for Ocean Health saying that It is important to reduce carbon dioxide emissions. Increased levels of carbon do not only affect shelled animals. All marine life will have to cope with ocean acidification, and not all species will adjust to new acidity levels easily. Coral reefs are biodiverse areas, vital to the survival of many species. Losing these ecosystems could have a huge effect on fisheries and thus on the human diet. It’s possible to reduce carbon emissions in daily life by conserving energy, reducing waste, and buying carbon offsets.
Chris (1997) says carborn emissions are dangerous for human bodies. carbon dioxide is essential for internal respiration in a human body. Internal respiration is a process, by which oxygen is transported to body tissues and carbon dioxide is carried away from them. Carbon dioxide is a guardian of the pH of the blood, which is essential for survival. The buffer system in which carbon dioxide plays an important role is called the carbonate buffer. It is made up of bicarbonate ions and dissolved carbon dioxide, with carbonic acid. The carbonic acid can neutralize hydroxide ions, which would increase the pH of the blood when added. The bicarbonate ion can neutralize hydrogen ions, which would cause a decrease in the pH of the blood when added. Both increasing and decreasing pH is life threatening.
Apart from being an essential buffer in the human system, carbon dioxide is also known to cause health effects when the concentrations exceed a certain limit. The primary health dangers or challenges of carbon dioxide are: Asphyxiation which is caused by the release of carbon dioxide in a confined or unventilated area. This can lower the concentration of oxygen to a level that is immediately dangerous for human health. Frostbite which is solid carbon dioxide is always below -78 oC at regular atmospheric pressure, regardless of the air temperature. Handling this material for more than a second or two without proper protection can cause serious blisters, and other unwanted effects. Carbon dioxide gas released from a steel cylinder, such as a fire extinguisher, causes similar effects. Kidney damage or coma is another challenge and this is caused by a disturbance in chemical equilibrium of the carbonate buffer. When carbon dioxide concentrations increase or decrease, causing the equilibrium to be disturbed, a life threatening situation may occur, Hopkins (2003).
The challenge of carbon emission also relates the greenhouse effect. In the 19th century, scientists realized that gases in the atmosphere cause a "greenhouse effect" which affects the planet's temperature. These scientists were interested chiefly in the possibility that a lower level of carbon dioxide gas might explain the ice ages of the distant past. At the turn of the century, Svante Arrhenius calculated that emissions from human industry might someday bring a global warming. Other scientists dismissed his idea as faulty. In 1938, G.S. Callendar argued that the level of carbon dioxide was climbing and raising global temperature, but most scientists found his arguments implausible. It was almost by chance that a few researchers in the 1950s discovered that global warming truly was possible. In the early 1960s, C.D. Keeling measured the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere: it was rising fast. Researchers began to take an interest, struggling to understand how the level of carbon dioxide had changed in the past, and how the level was influenced by chemical and biological forces. They found that the gas plays a crucial role in climate change, so that the rising level could gravely affect our future. Carbon Dioxide is the Key to Climate Change. The new carbon-14 measurements were giving scientists solid data to chew on. Researchers began to work out just how carbon moves through its many forms in the air, ocean, minerals, soils, and living creatures. They plugged their data into simple models, with boxes representing each reservoir of carbon (ocean surface waters, plants, etc.), and arrows showing the exchanges of CO2 among the reservoirs. The final goal of most researchers was to figure out how much of the CO2 produced from fossil fuels was sinking into the oceans, or perhaps was being absorbed by vegetation. But along the way there were many curious puzzles, which forced researchers to make inquiries among experts in far distant fields. Biosphere during the 1960s, these tentative contacts among almost entirely separate research communities developed into ongoing interchanges. Scientists who studied biological cycles of elements such as nitrogen and carbon (typically supported by forestry and agriculture interests) got in touch with, among others, geochemists (typically in academic retreats like the Scripps Institution of Oceanography in La Jolla, California). This emerging carbon-cycle community began to talk with atmospheric scientists who pursued interests in weather prediction (typically at government-funded laboratories like the National Center for Atmospheric Research in Boulder, Colorado, or the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory in Princeton, New Jersey). One valuable example of this crossover of interests was a calculation published by Princeton computer specialists in 1967. They had managed to produce a model that simulated something roughly like the actual climate of the planet, with deserts and sea ice and trade winds in all the right places. Out of curiosity they doubled the amount of CO2 in their simulated atmosphere. The simulated global temperature rose a couple of degrees, Chris (1997) and Hopkins (2003).
The carbon emissions challenge is worldwide covering big industrialized cities. For example, transport is Australia’s third largest source of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, accounting for 14 percent of the total. Even though commercial vehicles only comprise 18 percent of Australia’s vehicle fleet, they account for 38 percent of road transport GHG emissions (AGO 2007).
Ralph Hostetter in his paper of Monday, Jan. 8, 2007 review a number of issues with regard to carbon emission. He says combustion of fossil fuels accounts for more than 98 percent of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions in many parts of the wold causing a great challenge. Less than 2 percent comes from other sources. However, transportation (all cars, trucks, buses, planes, trains, etc.) accounts for 33 percent of the CO2 emissions. All other fossil fuel uses including coal-fired electric generating plants account for the remainder. Over 50 percent of U.S. electrical energy is produced by coal. Coal produces more CO2 emissions per kilowatt hour of electricity generated than do other fossil fuels. Nearly all the global-warming complaints involving CO2 emissions have been directed at the transportation sector and, in particular, automobiles such as the SUV.
In reality, with all other factors considered, the automobile is but a part of the transportation sector which accounts for only one-third of all CO2 emissions nationally. If auto transportation were to be considered as much as two-thirds of the entire transportation sector, coal-fired electrical generating plants would contribute nearly three times the CO2 emissions as the automobile segment. Elimination of all automobiles would reduce CO2 emissions by 22 percent. But everyone knows that is an impossibility. There is no substitute for the automobile. It is possible, however, to phase out coal-fired electrical generating plants in the future and reduce CO2 emissions (which the global warmers are demanding) by some 60 percent, a figure that equals the draconian demands of the Kyoto Protocol.
The major challenge of carbon emission can never be ever emphasized. Unlike the emissions of acid gases and particulates from fossil fuel-fired power stations, CO2 emissions have a global impact that could lead to climate change. Our understanding of the influence of atmospheric CO2 concentration on global temperatures and the implications of that on climate change is improving. The Stern report stated: “An overwhelming body of scientific evidence now clearly indicates that climate change is a serious and urgent issue.”
Warming of the climate system is unequivocal, as is now evident from observations of increases in average global air and ocean temperatures, widespread melting of snow and ice and rising mean global sea levels. Paleoclimate information supports the interpretation that the temperatures witnessed over the last half-century are unusual compared with at least the previous 1,300 years. The last time the polar regions were significantly warmer than present for an extended period of time (about 125,000 years ago), reductions in polar ice volume led to a rise in the sea level of 4–6 metres. Most of the observed increase in average global temperatures since the mid 20th century is very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic greenhouse gas oncentrations.
It is also clear that discernible human influences now extend to other aspects of climate, including ocean warming, continental-average temperatures, temperature extremes and wind patterns. For the next two decades, a warming of about 0.2°C per decade is projected for a range of Special Reports on Emission Scenarios (SRES). Even if concentrations of all greenhouse gases and aerosols had been kept constant at year 2000 levels, a further warming of about 0.1°C per decade would be expected. Continued greenhouse gas emissions at or above current rates would cause further warming and induce many changes in the global climate system during the 21st century that would very likely be larger than those observed during the 20th century. Anthropogenic warming and sea-level rises would continue for centuries due to the timescales associated with climate processes and feedbacks, even if greenhouse gas concentrations were stabilised. The recent Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) fourth assessment report highlighted that: “Global atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide … have increased markedly as a result of human activities since 1750 and now far exceed … values … spanning many thousands of years. The global increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change …”. This shows that action on CO2 emissions cannot be deferred and that man’s previous activities may have already initiated climate change that will take decades to rectify. However, although the developed world has now started to break the link between growth in gross domestic product (GDP) and CO2 emissions, emerging economies are at the stage at which this link is still in place. Only through co-ordinated global action can CO2 concentrations be stabilised at levels that will not precipitate profound global climate change and its economic ramifications. It is the role of governments and regional bodies – such as the EU – to find routes to achieve the goal of all civilised societies: low-cost, reliable and sustainable electricity.
There are a number of proposed solutions for reducing carbon emissions especially on the part of humans. While it is difficult to reduce human emissions without massive efforts from the different generations in different parts, it is possible for governments to take the challenge and control this carbon emission caused by humans. Carbon emission caused by natural forces would be very difficult to control. However, power stations produce a significant share of the world’s CO2 emissions. In order to reduce CO2 emissions from the power generation sector, there are two routes according to this study: firstly, displacing CO2 emissions from fossil fuel-fired plants by substituting lower or zero CO2 power plants, for example by replacing coal-fired plants with gas-fired plants or by building renewables (e.g. wind or hydro) or nuclear plants. Secondly, reduction of emissions of existing plants by fuel substitution (e.g.biomass), efficiency improvements (e.g. steam turbine cylinder replants) or, potentially, through carbon capture and storage. Thelatter would need to be applied to new fossil fuel-fired plants.
It can be concluded that the paper has shown the challenges of carbon emission on humanity and the effects it has including the possible resolutions as proposed may many stake holders discussed in the paper. It was poited out that on the ways forwad, there is need to address a number of technological facilities and equipments. At the central, there are three issues that need to be resolved before carbon capture,
transport and storage can be deployed, firstly technological issues where there is need to use most appropriate technology and
scale-up. Secondly, there is need for regulatory issues, including already infected personnel for treatment of captured and
stored CO2; and lastly there is need for financial issues where there is a big cost penalty that needs to be paid for (ultimately by the customer, as per the renewable and therefore, industries needs to work with governments in all of these areas, as
governments help to fund R&D and only they can change laws and regulations. Governments and industry including the community world wide will find a better way of controlling the challenges.
REFERENCES
Chris D. C. (1997) Nature of Carbon Emission. Essex: London.
Hardt and Safina (2006) The Effects of Carbon Emissions on Oceans: Carbon Dioxide Affects Marine Life Through Ocean Acidification http://www.suite101.com/content/the-effects-of-carbon-emissions-on-oceans-a125832#ixzz1B8AyoJ91
Hopkins, T. (2003). The effects of Carbon Emission to Nature and Humanity. Circulatory educational article
Jacobson C. (1992) The effect of carbon emission on nature and humanity.
Salvado N (1992) Carbon dioxide and its statistical causes in the Energy Information Administration.
Ralph E. H. (1999) Constituent of Carbon Emission and its effects on agricultural and nations.
http://www.articlesnatch.com/Article/Negative-Effects-Of-Carbon-Emissions/559581#ixzz1B8AKT9kp
Ralph (1999) Salvado (1992) Chris (1997) Hopkins (2003)
Its true that carbon emission has become a central issue of human concern. It is also true that it has a lot of effects to humanity and nature as we. While there are proposed measures to control carbon emission, it is mainly caused by the humans themselves due to their activities. The amount of carbon dioxide (CO2) released into the atmosphere has been rising extensively during the last 150 years. As a result, it has exceeded the amount sequestered in biomass, the oceans, and other sinks. World scientists have noted that there has been a climb in carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere of about 280 ppm in 1850 to 364 ppm in 1998, mainly due to human activities during and after the industrial revolution, which began in 1850. Humans have been increasing the amount of carbon dioxide in air by burning of fossil fuels, by producing cement and by carrying out land clearing and forest combustion. About 22% of the current atmospheric CO2 concentrations exist due to these human activities, considered that there is no change in natural amounts of carbon dioxide. We will take a closer look at these effects in the next few paragraphs and the possible challenges and solution. The principle aim of this paper is to discuss the assertion that Carbon emission has become a central issue of human concern. It will explain the challenges it posses to humanity and internationally binding solutions that has been proposed. The paper will begin by exploring the nature of carbon emission causes, its problems and how it can be controlled as proposed by a number of scholars.
Studies has shown that carbon emission is caused by Carbon dioxide of chemical formula CO2 which is a chemical compound composed of two oxygen atoms covalently bonded to a single carbon atom, Ralph (1999). It is a gas at standard temperature and pressure and exists in Earth's atmosphere in this state. CO2 is a trace gas comprising 0.039% of the atmosphere. As part of the carbon cycle known as photosynthesis, plants, algae, and cyanobacteria absorb carbon dioxide, sunlight, and water to produce carbohydrate energy for themselves and oxygen as a waste product. By contrast, during respiration they emit carbon dioxide, as do all other living things that depend either directly or indirectly on plants for food. Carbon dioxide is also generated as a by-product of combustion; emitted from volcanoes, hot springs, and geysers; and freed from carbonate rocks by dissolution suggesting that some causes of carbon emission cannot be controlled because they are natural. As of October 2010, carbon dioxide in the Earth's atmosphere is at a concentration of 388 ppm by volume. Atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide fluctuate slightly with the change of the seasons, driven primarily by seasonal plant growth in the Northern Hemisphere. Concentrations of carbon dioxide fall during the northern spring and summer as plants consume the gas, and rise during the northern autumn and winter as plants go dormant, die and decay. Taking all this into account, the concentration of CO2 grew by about 2 ppm in 2009. Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas as it transmits visible light but absorbs strongly in the infrared and near-infrared (Ralph, 1999, Salvado, 1992).
The challenges posed by carbon emission to humanity have very serious negative effects. Many years ago when technology was not in abundance, carbon emissions were never a challenge. But todsy the increase in technology has changed a number of things world wide affecting humanity in every way. Many years ago terms like green living and carbon neutral were commonly uttered and rarely promoted, it was decided that enough was enough with what was there. Everyone was doing this or was on a mission to communicate the message to every home and business that they can make a difference in reversing the negative effects of carbon emissions and otherwise destructive behavior and this trend can be brought in today. It can make a lot of sense in reducing or solving this problem. Although the eras are different from today’s, it felt that the talk was right, but the vehicle did not exist to any great degree thats where we come in. An accessible, non-intimidating way to make a difference where it matters most.
Carbon emission has caused a lot of challenges and trouble in nature like trees which in turn affects human life. The environment and humans are on a dangerous collision course. Our population grows, we produce more, we displace species and develop over existing and often fragile ecosystems to accommodate our growth, we consume resources without adequately replacing them then we manage to spit what we don’t need back out in the form of harmful emissions. We are already reading about the lack of global vegetation to adequately absorb the carbon emissions we are producing and our collective response it to further reduce the vegetation to accommodate our own needs. If we can reduce carbon emissions and bring back more vegetation, we can begin to achieve harmony between the earth and its inhabitants, Chris (1997).
Hopkins (2003) says the challenges of carbon emission has caused us to live in the limelight. Environmental concerns have finally made their way into the realm of social and, in turn, political relevance over the last decade. The environment is indeed in the limelight of social and political discussion. While those in government try to figure out how to write and enforce laws to balance both supporting the economy and achieving environmental sustainability, the private sector is free to start without them. There has never been a time where the environment is more pertinent to everyday discussion. To not capitalize on this opportunity and attempt to change the daily behavior of those willing to listen would be an opportunity squandered by those who understand the need to fix what is increasingly becoming the greatest societal crisis in the history of mankind. A wise man once said, If you choose not to decide, you still have made a choice. It is your decision, your choice to make a difference or not.
Measures to control the challenge of carbon emission have been in put in many government areas. Global Carbon Care seeks out carbon emission reduction or sequestration programs that provide an additional and sustainable benefit to the battle against the negative effects of carbon emissions. We focus on projects that meet Gold Standard or equivalent standards to ensure that the projects you help fund provide the greatest impact in the battle to reduce the presence of carbon emissions.
Those working at Global Carbon Care have faith in the general goodness and want of mankind to care for and respect the planet we all share. They have also not nave to the fact that a voluntary carbon offset is not high on the list of priorities for those without the means to do so. They focus on projects that meet Gold Standard or equivalent standards to ensure that the projects you help fund provide the greatest impact in the battle to reduce the presence of carbon emissions.
ScienceDaily (Jan. 4, 2008) a Stanford scientist has spelled out for the first time the direct links between increased levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and increases in human mortality, using a state-of-the-art computer model of the atmosphere that incorporates scores of physical and chemical environmental processes. The new findings come to light just after the Environmental Protection Agency's recent ruling against states setting specific emission standards for this greenhouse gas based in part on the lack of data showing the link between carbon dioxide emissions and their health effects.
While it has long been known that carbon dioxide emissions contribute to climate change, the new study details how for each increase of one degree Celsius caused by carbon dioxide, the resulting air pollution would lead annually to about a thousand additional deaths and many more cases of respiratory illness and asthma in many parts of the world like Zambia specically in Lusaka and copperbelt, the United States, china and other countries, according to the paper by Mark Jacobson, a professor of civil and environmental engineering at Stanford. Worldwide, upward of 20,000 air-pollution-related deaths per year per degree Celsius may be due to this greenhouse gas from cars and other industries, Ralph (1999). "This is a cause and effect relationship, not just a correlation," said Jacobson of his study, which on Dec. 24 was accepted for publication in Geophysical Research Letters. The study is the first specifically to isolate carbon dioxide's effect from that of other global-warming agents and to find quantitatively that chemical and meteorological changes due to carbon dioxide itself increase mortality due to increased ozone, particles and carcinogens in the air."
Jacobson said that the research has particular implications for many parts of the world. This study finds that the effects of carbon dioxide's warming are most significant where the pollution is already severe. Given that USA California is home to six of the 10 U.S. cities with the worst air quality, the state is likely to bear an increasingly disproportionate burden of death if no new restrictions are placed on carbon dioxide emissions. This also may apply in many other parts of the world where this apply.
On Dec. 19, the Environmental Protection Agency denied countries and 16 other states a waiver that would have allowed the states to set their own emission standards for carbon dioxide, which are not currently regulated. The EPA denied the waiver partly on the grounds that no special circumstances existed to warrant an exception for the states. Stephen L. Johnson, the EPA administrator, was widely quoted as saying that California's petition was denied because the state had failed to prove the "extraordinary and compelling conditions" required to qualify for a waiver. While previous published research has focused on the global effect on pollution--but not health--of all the greenhouse gases combined, the EPA noted that, under the Clean Air Act, it has to be shown that there is a reasonable anticipation of a specific pollutant endangering public health in the United States for the agency to regulate that pollutant.
Jacobson's paper offers concrete evidence that many states with a lot of carbon technologies is facing a particularly dire situation if carbon dioxide emissions increase. "With six of the 10 most polluted cities in the nation being in USA and China, that alone creates a special circumstance for the state," he said, explaining that the health-related effects of carbon dioxide emissions are most pronounced in areas that already have significant pollution. As such, increased warming due to carbon dioxide will worsen people's health in those cities at a much faster clip than elsewhere in the nation.
According to Jacobson, more than 30 percent of the 1,000 excess deaths (mean death rate value) due to each degree Celsius increase caused by carbon dioxide occurred in California, which has a population of about 12 percent of the United States. This indicates a much higher effect of carbon dioxide-induced warming on California health than that of the nation as a whole.
Jacobson added that much of the population of the United States already has been directly affected by climate change through the air they have inhaled over the last few decades and that, of course, the health effects would grow worse if temperatures continue to rise. Jacobson's work stands apart from previous research in that it uses a computer model of the atmosphere that takes into account many feedbacks between climate change and air pollution not considered in previous studies. Developed by Jacobson over the last 18 years, it is considered by many to be the most complex and complete atmospheric model worldwide. It incorporates principles of gas and particle emissions and transport, gas chemistry, particle production and evolution, ocean processes, soil processes, and the atmospheric effects of rain, winds, sunlight, heat and clouds, among other factors.
For this study, Jacobson used the computer model to determine the amounts of ozone and airborne particles that result from temperature increases, caused by increases in carbon dioxide emissions. Ozone causes and worsens respiratory and cardiovascular illnesses, emphysema and asthma, and many published studies have associated increased ozone with higher mortality. "[Ozone] is a very corrosive gas, it erodes rubber and statues," Jacobson said. "It cracks tires. So you can imagine what it does to your lungs in high enough concentrations." Particles are responsible for cardiovascular and respiratory illness and asthma.
Jacobson arrived at his results of the impact of carbon dioxide globally and, at higher resolution, over the United States by modeling the changes that would occur when all current human and natural gas and particle emissions were considered versus considering all such emissions except human-emitted carbon dioxide.
Jacobson simultaneously calculated the effects of increasing temperatures on pollution. He observed two important effects: Higher temperatures due to carbon dioxide increased the chemical rate of ozone production in urban areas and secondly, increased water vapor due to carbon dioxide-induced higher temperatures boosted chemical ozone production even more in urban areas.
Interestingly, neither effect was so important under the low pollution conditions typical of rural regions, though other factors, such as higher organic gas emissions from vegetation, affected ozone in low-pollution areas. Higher emissions of organic gases also increased the quantity of particles in the air, as organic gases can chemically react to form particles.
And in general, where there was an increase in water vapor, particles that were present became more deadly, as they swelled from absorption of water. "That added moisture allows other gases to dissolve in the particles--certain acid gases, like nitric acid, sulfuric acid and hydrochloric acid," Jacobson said. That increases the toxicity of the particles, which are already a harmful component of air pollution.
Jacobson also found that air temperatures rose more rapidly due to carbon dioxide than did ground temperatures, changing the vertical temperature profile, which decreased pollution dispersion, thereby concentrating particles near where they formed.
In the final stage of the study, Jacobson used the computer model to factor in the spatially varying population of the United States with the health effects that have been demonstrated to be associated with the aforementioned pollutants."The simulations accounted for the changes in ozone and particles through chemistry, transport, clouds, emissions and other processes that affect pollution," Jacobson said. "Carbon dioxide definitely caused these changes, because that was the only input that was varied. Ultimately, you inhale a greater abundance of deleterious chemicals due to carbon dioxide and the climate change associated with it, and the link appears quite solid," he said. "The logical next step is to reduce carbon dioxide: That would reduce its warming effect and improve the health of people in the world and around the cities who are currently suffering from air pollution health problems associated with it," (Jacobson 1992).
Due to this challenge, many people have become too focused on the effects that carbon dioxide emissions have on global warming, and have forgotten the many other negative consequences of this pollutant. The massive amounts of carbon dioxide humans put into the atmosphere each year have dire effects on human health. These carbon emissions also have a large impact on the world’s oceans – affecting ocean acidity and having drastic consequences for marine life or people working in the oceans.
Carbon emission affects the lives of the marines and those working along the oceans because it causes acidification in the oceans. The ocean is important to the carbon cycle and has absorbed about half of the carbon emissions created by humans since the Industrial Revolution. This absorbed carbon dioxide affects ocean chemistry, which in turn affects marine life. As Marah Hardt and Carl Safina describe in the June 24, 2008 Yale Forum on Climate Change and the Media article “Covering Ocean Acidification: Chemistry and Considerations” the ocean has a pH of 8.06, making it slightly alkaline. However, carbon dioxide [CO2] reacts with seawater [H2O] to create carbonic acid [H2CO3]. This reaction releases hydrogen ions [H+] which makes the ocean more acidic. The acidity of a solution is measured using the pH scale, which measures the amount of hydrogen ions [H+] in a solution.
Studies has explained how carbon dioxide emissions affect marine life that relies on calcium carbonate to live. These creatures include corals, mollusks, calcareous algae, and echinoderms such as sea stars and sea urchins. These creatures take up carbonate from the ocean to form calcium carbonate, the building block these creatures use to form their skeletons. However, as people create more carbon emissions and more carbon dioxide enters the ocean, there is less carbonate to go around. This is because of the hydrogen ions released when carbon dioxide mixes with seawater. The hydrogen ions [H+] bind to carbonate [CO32-] to form bicarbonate [HCO3-]. This results in less carbonate for creatures such as corals to use, thus reducing the growth of corals and other marine life. In turn this has a profound effect on the marine food web.
Ralph (1999) and Salvado (1992) says Carbon emissions affect the ability of corals to grow and maintain their structures. Excessive carbon dioxide is also affecting the symbiotic relationship corals have with algae, a relationship necessary for corals to survive. As Michael Perry describes in the October 28, 2008 Reuters article “Rising CO2 accelerates coral bleaching: study”, increased carbon emissions are destroying coral reefs. He notes an Australian study that shows coralline algae to be extremely sensitive to increased carbon dioxide levels. Increased carbon dioxide leads to coral bleaching, which means algae are leaving their corals, resulting in coral death.
Ralph (1999) and Salvado have stressed on the Importance of Reducing Carbon Dioxide for Ocean Health saying that It is important to reduce carbon dioxide emissions. Increased levels of carbon do not only affect shelled animals. All marine life will have to cope with ocean acidification, and not all species will adjust to new acidity levels easily. Coral reefs are biodiverse areas, vital to the survival of many species. Losing these ecosystems could have a huge effect on fisheries and thus on the human diet. It’s possible to reduce carbon emissions in daily life by conserving energy, reducing waste, and buying carbon offsets.
Chris (1997) says carborn emissions are dangerous for human bodies. carbon dioxide is essential for internal respiration in a human body. Internal respiration is a process, by which oxygen is transported to body tissues and carbon dioxide is carried away from them. Carbon dioxide is a guardian of the pH of the blood, which is essential for survival. The buffer system in which carbon dioxide plays an important role is called the carbonate buffer. It is made up of bicarbonate ions and dissolved carbon dioxide, with carbonic acid. The carbonic acid can neutralize hydroxide ions, which would increase the pH of the blood when added. The bicarbonate ion can neutralize hydrogen ions, which would cause a decrease in the pH of the blood when added. Both increasing and decreasing pH is life threatening.
Apart from being an essential buffer in the human system, carbon dioxide is also known to cause health effects when the concentrations exceed a certain limit. The primary health dangers or challenges of carbon dioxide are: Asphyxiation which is caused by the release of carbon dioxide in a confined or unventilated area. This can lower the concentration of oxygen to a level that is immediately dangerous for human health. Frostbite which is solid carbon dioxide is always below -78 oC at regular atmospheric pressure, regardless of the air temperature. Handling this material for more than a second or two without proper protection can cause serious blisters, and other unwanted effects. Carbon dioxide gas released from a steel cylinder, such as a fire extinguisher, causes similar effects. Kidney damage or coma is another challenge and this is caused by a disturbance in chemical equilibrium of the carbonate buffer. When carbon dioxide concentrations increase or decrease, causing the equilibrium to be disturbed, a life threatening situation may occur, Hopkins (2003).
The challenge of carbon emission also relates the greenhouse effect. In the 19th century, scientists realized that gases in the atmosphere cause a "greenhouse effect" which affects the planet's temperature. These scientists were interested chiefly in the possibility that a lower level of carbon dioxide gas might explain the ice ages of the distant past. At the turn of the century, Svante Arrhenius calculated that emissions from human industry might someday bring a global warming. Other scientists dismissed his idea as faulty. In 1938, G.S. Callendar argued that the level of carbon dioxide was climbing and raising global temperature, but most scientists found his arguments implausible. It was almost by chance that a few researchers in the 1950s discovered that global warming truly was possible. In the early 1960s, C.D. Keeling measured the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere: it was rising fast. Researchers began to take an interest, struggling to understand how the level of carbon dioxide had changed in the past, and how the level was influenced by chemical and biological forces. They found that the gas plays a crucial role in climate change, so that the rising level could gravely affect our future. Carbon Dioxide is the Key to Climate Change. The new carbon-14 measurements were giving scientists solid data to chew on. Researchers began to work out just how carbon moves through its many forms in the air, ocean, minerals, soils, and living creatures. They plugged their data into simple models, with boxes representing each reservoir of carbon (ocean surface waters, plants, etc.), and arrows showing the exchanges of CO2 among the reservoirs. The final goal of most researchers was to figure out how much of the CO2 produced from fossil fuels was sinking into the oceans, or perhaps was being absorbed by vegetation. But along the way there were many curious puzzles, which forced researchers to make inquiries among experts in far distant fields. Biosphere during the 1960s, these tentative contacts among almost entirely separate research communities developed into ongoing interchanges. Scientists who studied biological cycles of elements such as nitrogen and carbon (typically supported by forestry and agriculture interests) got in touch with, among others, geochemists (typically in academic retreats like the Scripps Institution of Oceanography in La Jolla, California). This emerging carbon-cycle community began to talk with atmospheric scientists who pursued interests in weather prediction (typically at government-funded laboratories like the National Center for Atmospheric Research in Boulder, Colorado, or the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory in Princeton, New Jersey). One valuable example of this crossover of interests was a calculation published by Princeton computer specialists in 1967. They had managed to produce a model that simulated something roughly like the actual climate of the planet, with deserts and sea ice and trade winds in all the right places. Out of curiosity they doubled the amount of CO2 in their simulated atmosphere. The simulated global temperature rose a couple of degrees, Chris (1997) and Hopkins (2003).
The carbon emissions challenge is worldwide covering big industrialized cities. For example, transport is Australia’s third largest source of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, accounting for 14 percent of the total. Even though commercial vehicles only comprise 18 percent of Australia’s vehicle fleet, they account for 38 percent of road transport GHG emissions (AGO 2007).
Ralph Hostetter in his paper of Monday, Jan. 8, 2007 review a number of issues with regard to carbon emission. He says combustion of fossil fuels accounts for more than 98 percent of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions in many parts of the wold causing a great challenge. Less than 2 percent comes from other sources. However, transportation (all cars, trucks, buses, planes, trains, etc.) accounts for 33 percent of the CO2 emissions. All other fossil fuel uses including coal-fired electric generating plants account for the remainder. Over 50 percent of U.S. electrical energy is produced by coal. Coal produces more CO2 emissions per kilowatt hour of electricity generated than do other fossil fuels. Nearly all the global-warming complaints involving CO2 emissions have been directed at the transportation sector and, in particular, automobiles such as the SUV.
In reality, with all other factors considered, the automobile is but a part of the transportation sector which accounts for only one-third of all CO2 emissions nationally. If auto transportation were to be considered as much as two-thirds of the entire transportation sector, coal-fired electrical generating plants would contribute nearly three times the CO2 emissions as the automobile segment. Elimination of all automobiles would reduce CO2 emissions by 22 percent. But everyone knows that is an impossibility. There is no substitute for the automobile. It is possible, however, to phase out coal-fired electrical generating plants in the future and reduce CO2 emissions (which the global warmers are demanding) by some 60 percent, a figure that equals the draconian demands of the Kyoto Protocol.
The major challenge of carbon emission can never be ever emphasized. Unlike the emissions of acid gases and particulates from fossil fuel-fired power stations, CO2 emissions have a global impact that could lead to climate change. Our understanding of the influence of atmospheric CO2 concentration on global temperatures and the implications of that on climate change is improving. The Stern report stated: “An overwhelming body of scientific evidence now clearly indicates that climate change is a serious and urgent issue.”
Warming of the climate system is unequivocal, as is now evident from observations of increases in average global air and ocean temperatures, widespread melting of snow and ice and rising mean global sea levels. Paleoclimate information supports the interpretation that the temperatures witnessed over the last half-century are unusual compared with at least the previous 1,300 years. The last time the polar regions were significantly warmer than present for an extended period of time (about 125,000 years ago), reductions in polar ice volume led to a rise in the sea level of 4–6 metres. Most of the observed increase in average global temperatures since the mid 20th century is very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic greenhouse gas oncentrations.
It is also clear that discernible human influences now extend to other aspects of climate, including ocean warming, continental-average temperatures, temperature extremes and wind patterns. For the next two decades, a warming of about 0.2°C per decade is projected for a range of Special Reports on Emission Scenarios (SRES). Even if concentrations of all greenhouse gases and aerosols had been kept constant at year 2000 levels, a further warming of about 0.1°C per decade would be expected. Continued greenhouse gas emissions at or above current rates would cause further warming and induce many changes in the global climate system during the 21st century that would very likely be larger than those observed during the 20th century. Anthropogenic warming and sea-level rises would continue for centuries due to the timescales associated with climate processes and feedbacks, even if greenhouse gas concentrations were stabilised. The recent Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) fourth assessment report highlighted that: “Global atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide … have increased markedly as a result of human activities since 1750 and now far exceed … values … spanning many thousands of years. The global increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change …”. This shows that action on CO2 emissions cannot be deferred and that man’s previous activities may have already initiated climate change that will take decades to rectify. However, although the developed world has now started to break the link between growth in gross domestic product (GDP) and CO2 emissions, emerging economies are at the stage at which this link is still in place. Only through co-ordinated global action can CO2 concentrations be stabilised at levels that will not precipitate profound global climate change and its economic ramifications. It is the role of governments and regional bodies – such as the EU – to find routes to achieve the goal of all civilised societies: low-cost, reliable and sustainable electricity.
There are a number of proposed solutions for reducing carbon emissions especially on the part of humans. While it is difficult to reduce human emissions without massive efforts from the different generations in different parts, it is possible for governments to take the challenge and control this carbon emission caused by humans. Carbon emission caused by natural forces would be very difficult to control. However, power stations produce a significant share of the world’s CO2 emissions. In order to reduce CO2 emissions from the power generation sector, there are two routes according to this study: firstly, displacing CO2 emissions from fossil fuel-fired plants by substituting lower or zero CO2 power plants, for example by replacing coal-fired plants with gas-fired plants or by building renewables (e.g. wind or hydro) or nuclear plants. Secondly, reduction of emissions of existing plants by fuel substitution (e.g.biomass), efficiency improvements (e.g. steam turbine cylinder replants) or, potentially, through carbon capture and storage. Thelatter would need to be applied to new fossil fuel-fired plants.
It can be concluded that the paper has shown the challenges of carbon emission on humanity and the effects it has including the possible resolutions as proposed may many stake holders discussed in the paper. It was poited out that on the ways forwad, there is need to address a number of technological facilities and equipments. At the central, there are three issues that need to be resolved before carbon capture,
transport and storage can be deployed, firstly technological issues where there is need to use most appropriate technology and
scale-up. Secondly, there is need for regulatory issues, including already infected personnel for treatment of captured and
stored CO2; and lastly there is need for financial issues where there is a big cost penalty that needs to be paid for (ultimately by the customer, as per the renewable and therefore, industries needs to work with governments in all of these areas, as
governments help to fund R&D and only they can change laws and regulations. Governments and industry including the community world wide will find a better way of controlling the challenges.
REFERENCES
Chris D. C. (1997) Nature of Carbon Emission. Essex: London.
Hardt and Safina (2006) The Effects of Carbon Emissions on Oceans: Carbon Dioxide Affects Marine Life Through Ocean Acidification http://www.suite101.com/content/the-effects-of-carbon-emissions-on-oceans-a125832#ixzz1B8AyoJ91
Hopkins, T. (2003). The effects of Carbon Emission to Nature and Humanity. Circulatory educational article
Jacobson C. (1992) The effect of carbon emission on nature and humanity.
Salvado N (1992) Carbon dioxide and its statistical causes in the Energy Information Administration.
Ralph E. H. (1999) Constituent of Carbon Emission and its effects on agricultural and nations.
http://www.articlesnatch.com/Article/Negative-Effects-Of-Carbon-Emissions/559581#ixzz1B8AKT9kp
Ralph (1999) Salvado (1992) Chris (1997) Hopkins (2003)
aims, goals and objectives
When you have something you want to accomplish, it is important to set aims, goals and objectives including strategies for meeting them. Aims without goals and objectives may be very difficult to meet. Equally goals without objectives can never be accomplished while objectives without goals will never get you to where you want to be. All aspects can be achieved with good strategies and all these terms are separate but related and help us to accomplish our plans. This paper aims at making distinctions amongst the following terms or concepts; aims, goals, objectives and strategies. This distinction will be based on the knowledge gained from the course and other literatures available.
In everyday life we tend to use the terms aims, goals, objectives or strategies interchangeably. Within the educational lexicon, for the past twenty years curriculum scholars, planners and administrators have been trying to standardize terms so that they refer to very specific curricular components. The following definitions are broadly accepted by groups trying to standardize curricular terms so that they are not confusing to readers and users. Aims are long term overall results you expects to see at the end of the project or programme. Goals are a means through which aims are met. They are limited in terms of longation as compared to aims that you want to accomplish at the end. Objectives are concrete attainments that can be achieved by following a certain number of steps in meeting the goals and aims. Goals and objectives are often used interchangeably, but the main difference comes in their level of concreteness. Objectives are very concrete, whereas goals are less structured. The diagramme below show the structure that is followed in arranging aims goals and objectives.
The diagramme below shows a clear distinction of the terms aims, goals and objectives. These are followed by the distinction of strategies following the table.
Definition Example
Aims Aims are general statements that provide direction or intent to educational action. Aims are usually written in amorphous terms using words like: learn, know, understand, appreciate, and these are not directly measurable. Aims may serve as organizing principles of educational direction for more than one grade. Indeed these organizing principles may encompass the continuum of educational direction for entire programs, subject areas or the district. Students will understand and become proficient at identifying the different types of spoken English.
Goals Goals are statements of educational intention which are more specific than aims. Goals too may encompass an entire program, subject area, or multiple grade levels. They may be in either amorphous language or in more specific behavioral terms. Students will be able to identify and use American slang terms and phrases.
(This example is a subset of the aim above, but the area becomes more specific. This goal moves from generic spoken English to the more detailed area of American slang. One verb used is still identify, although this goal does not specify how students are to identify, and the verb use has been added. The objectives related to this goal should specify how the students will identify and use new knowledge.)
Objectives Objectives are usually specific statements of educational intention which delineate either general or specific outcomes.
There are advantages and disadvantages to different types of objectives.
• Behavioral objectives
o Holistic objectives
• Nonbehavioral objectives
o Problem solving objectives
o Expressive activities that lead to expressive outcomes.
Objectives can be written in a number of ways. Currently, most objectives are written in behavioral terms. Behavioral objectives usually employ observable verbiage and can be divided into specific domains -- cognitive, affective, and physical.
Samples:
• Cognitive: Students will identify and list 5 slang terms they have heard from their peers.
• Affective: Student will choose 3 of the most offensive slang terms from a list developed by the entire class.
• Physical: Students will create expressive gestures to go with their favorite slang terms.
strategies Strategy refers to a plan of action designed to achieve a particular aim, goal or objective. The word is of military origin, deriving from the Greek word strategos, which roughly translates as general.
A strategy is a scheme: an elaborate and systematic plan of action
When I enter class, I will ask students verbally to get a pen or pencil and a paper or book and the instructions as highlighted in aims, goals and objectives above. While they are writing, I will have to check exactly what they are doing to ensure that they are doing the right thing.
Quinn says "a strategy is the pattern or plan that integrates an organization's major goals, policies, and action sequences into a cohesive whole. A well-formulated strategy helps to marshal and allocate an organization's resources into a unique and viable posture based on its relative internal competencies and shortcomings, anticipated changes in the environment, and contingent moves by intelligent opponents." All types of businesses require some sort of strategy in order to be successful; otherwise their efforts and resources will be spent haphazardly and likely wasted. Although strategy formulation tends to be handled more formally in large organizations, small businesses too need to develop strategies in order to use their limited resources to compete effectively against larger firms.
Formulation of an effective business strategy requires managers to consider three main players—the company, its customers, and the competition which according to Kenichi Ohmae in his book The Mind of the Strategist. These three players are collectively referred to as the strategic triangle. "In terms of these three key players, strategy is defined as the way in which a corporation endeavors to differentiate itself positively from its competitors, using its relative corporate strengths and weaknesses to better satisfy customer needs," Ohmae explained. Participative strategic development also may help companies to retain key employees, because employees gain satisfaction by being able to direct and see the results of their efforts. "Retaining these highly skilled and trained professionals will become increasingly important as knowledge has more and more to do with the company's ability to build and maintain a competitive advantage," Wall and Wall noted. Finally, participating in strategy formulation may enable managers to make better use of their time. This benefit is particularly helpful because time is always limited as companies try to do more with less people in meeting their aims, goals and objectives. Their strategies or course of action is taken by highly effective and efficient professionals to meet their expectation in a limited period of time.
It can be concluded that aims are what we intend to see as the overall result. Goals are alittle specific that aims. Objectives are more specific that aims and goals and strategies look at the line of action or the small bits of things to be done in order to meet the aims, goals and the objectives.
REFERENCES
Mintzberg, Henry, and James Brian Quinn. The Strategy Process: Concepts and Contexts. Prentice-Hall, 1992.
Ohmae, Kenichi. The Mind of the Strategist in metting aims, goals and objectives: Business Planning for Competitive Advantage. Penguin, 1982.
Porter, Michael E. Competitive Strategy: Techniques for Analyzing Industries and Competitors. Free Press, 1980.
Wall, Stephen J., and Shannon Rye Wall. "The Evolution (Not the Death) of Strategy." Organizational Dynamics. Autumn 1995.
In everyday life we tend to use the terms aims, goals, objectives or strategies interchangeably. Within the educational lexicon, for the past twenty years curriculum scholars, planners and administrators have been trying to standardize terms so that they refer to very specific curricular components. The following definitions are broadly accepted by groups trying to standardize curricular terms so that they are not confusing to readers and users. Aims are long term overall results you expects to see at the end of the project or programme. Goals are a means through which aims are met. They are limited in terms of longation as compared to aims that you want to accomplish at the end. Objectives are concrete attainments that can be achieved by following a certain number of steps in meeting the goals and aims. Goals and objectives are often used interchangeably, but the main difference comes in their level of concreteness. Objectives are very concrete, whereas goals are less structured. The diagramme below show the structure that is followed in arranging aims goals and objectives.
The diagramme below shows a clear distinction of the terms aims, goals and objectives. These are followed by the distinction of strategies following the table.
Definition Example
Aims Aims are general statements that provide direction or intent to educational action. Aims are usually written in amorphous terms using words like: learn, know, understand, appreciate, and these are not directly measurable. Aims may serve as organizing principles of educational direction for more than one grade. Indeed these organizing principles may encompass the continuum of educational direction for entire programs, subject areas or the district. Students will understand and become proficient at identifying the different types of spoken English.
Goals Goals are statements of educational intention which are more specific than aims. Goals too may encompass an entire program, subject area, or multiple grade levels. They may be in either amorphous language or in more specific behavioral terms. Students will be able to identify and use American slang terms and phrases.
(This example is a subset of the aim above, but the area becomes more specific. This goal moves from generic spoken English to the more detailed area of American slang. One verb used is still identify, although this goal does not specify how students are to identify, and the verb use has been added. The objectives related to this goal should specify how the students will identify and use new knowledge.)
Objectives Objectives are usually specific statements of educational intention which delineate either general or specific outcomes.
There are advantages and disadvantages to different types of objectives.
• Behavioral objectives
o Holistic objectives
• Nonbehavioral objectives
o Problem solving objectives
o Expressive activities that lead to expressive outcomes.
Objectives can be written in a number of ways. Currently, most objectives are written in behavioral terms. Behavioral objectives usually employ observable verbiage and can be divided into specific domains -- cognitive, affective, and physical.
Samples:
• Cognitive: Students will identify and list 5 slang terms they have heard from their peers.
• Affective: Student will choose 3 of the most offensive slang terms from a list developed by the entire class.
• Physical: Students will create expressive gestures to go with their favorite slang terms.
strategies Strategy refers to a plan of action designed to achieve a particular aim, goal or objective. The word is of military origin, deriving from the Greek word strategos, which roughly translates as general.
A strategy is a scheme: an elaborate and systematic plan of action
When I enter class, I will ask students verbally to get a pen or pencil and a paper or book and the instructions as highlighted in aims, goals and objectives above. While they are writing, I will have to check exactly what they are doing to ensure that they are doing the right thing.
Quinn says "a strategy is the pattern or plan that integrates an organization's major goals, policies, and action sequences into a cohesive whole. A well-formulated strategy helps to marshal and allocate an organization's resources into a unique and viable posture based on its relative internal competencies and shortcomings, anticipated changes in the environment, and contingent moves by intelligent opponents." All types of businesses require some sort of strategy in order to be successful; otherwise their efforts and resources will be spent haphazardly and likely wasted. Although strategy formulation tends to be handled more formally in large organizations, small businesses too need to develop strategies in order to use their limited resources to compete effectively against larger firms.
Formulation of an effective business strategy requires managers to consider three main players—the company, its customers, and the competition which according to Kenichi Ohmae in his book The Mind of the Strategist. These three players are collectively referred to as the strategic triangle. "In terms of these three key players, strategy is defined as the way in which a corporation endeavors to differentiate itself positively from its competitors, using its relative corporate strengths and weaknesses to better satisfy customer needs," Ohmae explained. Participative strategic development also may help companies to retain key employees, because employees gain satisfaction by being able to direct and see the results of their efforts. "Retaining these highly skilled and trained professionals will become increasingly important as knowledge has more and more to do with the company's ability to build and maintain a competitive advantage," Wall and Wall noted. Finally, participating in strategy formulation may enable managers to make better use of their time. This benefit is particularly helpful because time is always limited as companies try to do more with less people in meeting their aims, goals and objectives. Their strategies or course of action is taken by highly effective and efficient professionals to meet their expectation in a limited period of time.
It can be concluded that aims are what we intend to see as the overall result. Goals are alittle specific that aims. Objectives are more specific that aims and goals and strategies look at the line of action or the small bits of things to be done in order to meet the aims, goals and the objectives.
REFERENCES
Mintzberg, Henry, and James Brian Quinn. The Strategy Process: Concepts and Contexts. Prentice-Hall, 1992.
Ohmae, Kenichi. The Mind of the Strategist in metting aims, goals and objectives: Business Planning for Competitive Advantage. Penguin, 1982.
Porter, Michael E. Competitive Strategy: Techniques for Analyzing Industries and Competitors. Free Press, 1980.
Wall, Stephen J., and Shannon Rye Wall. "The Evolution (Not the Death) of Strategy." Organizational Dynamics. Autumn 1995.
Importance of needs assessment in alleviating poverty
Most projects on poverty alleviation fail because they are not based on adequate needs assessment. This paper aims at demonstrating how an individual would evolve a poverty alleviation project based on sound needs assessment. The paper will firstly explore the definition of key terms in the question like needs assessment and poverty followed by the main body and then end with a conclusion.
By definition, Fundamentally, poverty is a denial of choices and opportunities, a violation of human dignity. It means lack of basic capacity to participate effectively in society. It means not having enough to feed and cloth a family, not having a school or clinic to go to, not having the land on which to grow one’s food or a job to earn one’s living, not having access to credit. It means insecurity, powerlessness and exclusion of individuals, households and communities. It means susceptibility to violence, and it often implies living in marginal or fragile environments, without access to clean water or sanitation, (United Nations).
Needs assessment is a process for determining and addressing needs, or "gaps" between current conditions and desired conditions, often used for improvement in individuals, education/training, organizations, or communities. The need can be a desire to improve current performance or to correct a deficiency. The idea of needs assessment, as part of the planning process, has been used under different names for a long time. In the past 50 years, it has been an essential element of educational planning.Over the past four decades, there has been a proliferation of models for needs assessment with dozens of models to choose from.
Poverty alleviation refers to attempts in trying to reduce poverty levels in a nation. There has been a number of attempts in trying to alleviate poverty. However, these attempts were not based on proper needs assessment of that particular community. There is need to use a sound needs assessment whereby before the project is embarked on, there is need for a team of researchers to go into the field to find out the main problem or the needs and expectation of the people at the glass root. While its true that poverty is manifested at different as it is a condition characterized by severe deprivation of basic human needs, including food, safe drinking water, sanitation facilities, health, shelter, education and information. It depends not only on income but also on access to services. It includes a lack of income and productive resources to ensure sustainable livelihoods; hunger and malnutrition; ill health; limited or lack of access to education and other basic services; increased morbidity and mortality from illness; homelessness and inadequate housing; unsafe environments and social discrimination and exclusion. It is also characterized by lack of participation in decision making and in civil, social and cultural life. It occurs in all countries: as mass poverty in many developing countries, pockets of poverty amid wealth in developed countries, loss of livelihoods as a result of economic recession, sudden poverty as a result of disaster or conflict, the poverty of low-wage workers, and the utter destitution of people who fall outside family support systems, social institutions and safety nets, (World Summit on Social Development). There is need for researchers first to establish what the people at the place where poverty need to be reduced really needs and what can be done about them.
In the needs assessment process, researchers will be looking for things like helping the communities to meet nutritional requirements, to escape avoidable disease, to be sheltered, to be clothed, to be able to travel, and to be educated.
Needs assement process should be well defined with specific areas which needs to be addressed. People are living in poverty if their income and resources (material, cultural and social) are so inadequate as to preclude them from having a standard of living which is regarded as acceptable by Irish society generally. As a result of inadequate income and resources people may be excluded and marginalised from participating in activities which are considered the norm for other people in society. Considered the "father of needs assessment," Roger Kaufman first developed a model for determining needs defined as a gap in results. This particular emphasis in results focuses on the outcomes (or ends) that result from an organizaton's products, processes, or inputs (the means to the ends). Kaufman argues that an actual need can only be identified independent of premature selection of a solution (wherein processes are defined as means to an end, not an end unto themselves). To conduct a quality needs assessment according to Kaufman, you first determine the current results, articulate the desired results, and the distance between results is the actual need. Once a need is identified, then a solution can be selected that is targeted to closing the gap. Kaufman's model in particular identifies gaps in needs at the societal level, what Kaufman calls "Mega" planning, along with gaps at the Macro (or organizational) and Micro level.
Kaufman articulated 13 specific societal-level needs for which all organizations are partially responsible (based on data collected from countries around the world), all of which contribute ultimately to self-sufficiency and these needs need to be taken to consideration by researchers before the poverty alleviation project starts. Researchers needs assessment according to Kaufman may be in the following areas:
War and/or riot and/or terrorism; Shelter; Unintended human-cased changes to the environment, including permanent destruction of the environment and/or rendering it non-renewable; Murder, rape, or crimes of violence, robery, or destruction of property; Substance abuse; Disease; Pollution; Starvation and/or malnutrition; Child abuse; Partner/spouse/elder abuse; Injuries and accidents, including transportation, home, and business/workplace; Discrimination based on irrelevant variables including color, race, creed, sex, religion, national origin, age, and location and Poverty.
Some researchers recommends the use of models for establishing needs assessment processes in the targets communities. Apart from Kaufman’s thirteen model of establishing needs assessment, other models define needs assessment as a process for determining and addressing needs, or "gaps" between current conditions and desired conditions or gaps between current and desired products. Leigh, et al. conducted a comparison of the major needs assessment models in 2000 based on the level of organizational planning each addressed and the direction of linkages between the levels of planning. Models like the chain models help in alleviating poverty. Shafloot has his contribution to the needs assessment by adding a new unique model called Needs Chain Model which is composed of aligned horizontal and virtual processes in which there are four different kinds of needs that describe and identify the ultimate performance goal, solutions, and what might affect these solutions. It can be illustrated as performance, instruments, and conscious and unconscious needs. Also, it has four vertical factors that consider organizational and individual needs, causes, and level of objectivity for all needs.
It is clear here that in alleviating poverty, the Needs Chain Model provides tools that assist organizations in prioritizing resources and identifying areas that require improvement. Figure 1 identifies four main types of need that must be considered, for example, for determining the organization’s goals and the instrument needs with full understanding of the unconscious needs. Another factor determines the objectivity level.
In alleviating poverty, there is really need to asses the demands, needs and aspirations of the target community. There should be a deliberate inquiry or systematic inquiry of training needs within the researchers for the purposes of identifying priorities and making decisions, and allocating finite resources in a manner consistent with identified program goals and objectives.
Since poverty is in the community, there is need for community needs assessment. Gupta et al. developed a model focused at the community level they term community needs analysis. Their model involves identifying material problems/deficits/weaknesses and advantages/opportunities /strengths, and evaluating possible solutions that take those qualities into consideration. Note that this is different from Kaufman's Mega model that focuses on identifying societal-level needs.
Community needs assessment involves assessing the needs that people have in order to live in: “an ecologically sustainable environment, a community that maintains and develops viable social capital, a way that meets their own economic and financial requirements and a manner that permits political participation in decisions that affect themselves. Community needs assessment as a technique thus forms a part of an Ecologically Sustainable Community Economic Development (ESCED). It forms a first step in any project that aims to secure or alleviating poverty in a particular community:
Ecological enhancement: minimizing ecological impact or ameliorating any ecological damage; Social vitality: building a community that meets all the social and human needs of its members; Economic resilience: "shock-proofing" local "green" business enterprises as much as possible; Political participation in ways that ensure the participation of people in political decisions that affect them.
Community needs assessment can really help alleviate poverty within the members and among those target communities. Since needs assessment is a process that is used throughout education, government, and the private sector as a way of generating information that can be useful for solving some problem. The idea of needs assessment is hardly new; it has been used, under different names, for millennia as part of the planning process. Certainly, in the past 50 years or so, needs assessment has been, and continues to be, a cornerstone of educational planning at all levels.
A recent search for information on "needs assessment" using Google as a search engine, yielded some 413,000 references. Many of the sites offer very detailed descriptions of what needs assessment "is" and the steps required to undertake one. The purpose of this page on ADPRIMA is to distill much of this into a practical, straightforward description of the fundamental ideas of needs assessment. With that in mind, let’s begin.
Researchers who want to alleviate poverty need to distinguish needs and wants to the target community where this poverty alleviation is to take place. It seems reasonable to assert that wants trump needs. This is an opinion, but I think it is fundamental to the entire process. I suppose it comes down to a way of perceiving how meaning is derived from our choice and use of words and phrases.
We humans "need" things because of our wants. The things we need are comprised of physical objects such as food and shelter, as well as processes, such as root canals and haircuts. We also have come to "need" information such as the percent of students scoring at a particular level, or the total of charitable deductions for income tax purposes. As human beings, we also have emotional and psychological needs. Regardless of what we deem to be needs, they are all incontrovertibly linked directly to our wants. We need things either to happen or not happen because of what we want. We need certain conditions because of our wants. Abraham Maslow, (1908-1970) described the hierarchy of needs (being and deficit) that all humans strive to satisfy or to ameliorate. Regardless, the position here is that based on our wants, if something is "needed," it means we must have it, must get it, must obtain it. It is not a difficult concept. In some cases, such as the deficit needs described by Maslow, in order to obtain what we want, we may actually "need" less of something. Poverty is pronounced deprivation in well-being, and comprises many dimensions. It includes low incomes and the inability to acquire the basic goods and services necessary for survival with dignity. Poverty also encompasses low levels of health and education, poor access to clean water and sanitation, inadequate physical security, lack of voice, and insufficient capacity and opportunity to better one’s life.
Wants are sort of a priori transactions. We want one thing or one condition or another simply because we do. Our wants do not necessarily have to be justified. I want a red car, because I like red. I want to finish a report because it is important. Regardless of what our wants are, and they can be, to an outside observer, quite irrelevant or very important, our wants provide the criteria for determining what we need in order to satisfy them.
For needs assessment in poverty alleviation can be traced back in the history of poverty. Before the industrial revolution, poverty had been mostly accepted as inevitable as economies produced little, making wealth scarce. In Antwerp and Lyons, two of the largest cities in western Europe, by 1600 three-quarters of the total population were too poor to pay taxes. In 18th century England, half the population was at least occasionally dependent on charity for subsistence. In modern times, food shortages have been reduced dramatically in the developed world, thanks to agricultural technologies such as nitrogen fertilizers, pesticides and new irrigation methods. Also, mass production of goods in places such as China has made what were once considered luxuries, such as vehicles or computers, inexpensive and thus accessible to many who were otherwise too poor to afford them. Rises in the costs of living make poor people less able to afford items. Poor people spend a greater portion of their budgets on food than richer people. As a result, poor households and those near the poverty threshold can be particularly vulnerable to increases in food prices. For example, in late 2007 increases in the price of grains led to food riots in some countries. The World Bank warned that 100 million people were at risk of sinking deeper into poverty. Threats to the supply of food may also be caused by drought and the water crisis. Intensive farming often leads to a vicious cycle of exhaustion of soil fertility and decline of agricultural yields. Approximately 40% of the world's agricultural land is seriously degraded. In Africa, if current trends of soil degradation continue, the continent might be able to feed just 25% of its population by 2025, according to UNU's Ghana-based Institute for Natural Resources in Africa. Health care can be widely unavailable to the poor. The loss of health care workers emigrating from impoverished countries has a damaging effect. For example, an estimated 100,000 Philippine nurses emigrated between 1994 and 2006. There are more Ethiopian doctors in Chicago than in Ethiopia.
Needs assessment in poverty alleviation might also want to look at issues of demography like overpopulation and lack of access to birth control methods drive poverty. The world's population is expected to reach nearly 9 billion in 2040. However, the reverse is also true, that poverty causes overpopulation as it gives women little power to control giving birth, or to have educational attainment or a career. The unwillingness of governments and feudal elites to give full-fledged property rights in land to their tenants is cited as the chief obstacle to development. This lack of economic freedom inhibits entrepreneurship among the poor. New enterprises and foreign investment can be driven away by the results of inefficient institutions, notably corruption, weak rule of law and excessive bureaucratic burdens. Lack of financial services, as a result of restrictive regulations, such as the requirements for banking licenses, makes it hard for even smaller microsavings programs to reach the poor.
Illiteracy can be part of the needs assement techniques in the poverty alleviation process. It takes two days, two bureaucratic procedures, and k1,000,000 to open a business in Zambia while an entrepreneur in Zimbabwe might need K500,000 for business. All these facets need to be assessed. Similarly substance abuse, including for example alcoholism and drug abuse can consign people to vicious poverty cycles. Infectious diseases such as malaria and tuberculosis can perpetuate poverty by diverting health and economic resources from investment and productivity; malaria decreases GDP growth by up to 1.3% in some developing nations and AIDS decreases African growth by 0.3-1.5% annually. War, political instability and crime, including violent gangs and drug cartels, also discourage investment. Civil wars and conflicts in Africa cost the continent some $300 billion between 1990 and 2005. Eritrea and Ethiopia spent hundreds of millions of dollars on the war that resulted in minor border changes. Shocks in the business cycle affect poverty rates, increasing in recessions and declining in booms. Cultural factors, such as discrimination of various kinds, can negatively affect productivity such as age discrimination, stereotyping,[53] gender discrimination, racial discrimination, and caste discrimination.[54]
Max Weber and the modernization theory suggest that cultural values could affect economic success. However, researchers have gathered evidence that suggest that values are not as deeply ingrained and that changing economic opportunities explain most of the movement into and out of poverty, as opposed to shifts in values. Needs assessment should help researchers in determining and addressing needs, or "gaps" between current conditions and desired conditions, often used for improvement projects in education/training, organizations, or communities.
If an initial assessment conducted by the project team confirmed that there was a real need for a repository of media items about a certain state and things did not go well in sorting out the problem, the strategy need to be changed and this means that needs assessment were not not properly done.
Needs assessments are important in establishing poverty effects or levels of poverty in a target or particular community of concern. Hunger, disease, and less education describe a person in poverty. One third of deaths - some 18 million people a year or 50,000 per day - are due to poverty-related causes: in total 270 million people, most of them women and children, have died as a result of poverty since 1990. Those living in poverty suffer disproportionately from hunger or even starvation and disease. Those living in poverty suffer lower life expectancy. According to the World Health Organization, hunger and malnutrition are the single gravest threats to the world's public health and malnutrition is by far the biggest contributor to child mortality, present in half of all cases. Every year nearly 11 million children living in poverty die before their fifth birthday. 1.02 billion people go to bed hungry every night. Poverty increases the risk of homelessness. There are over 100 million street children worldwide. Increased risk of drug abuse may also be associated with poverty. According to the Global Hunger Index, South Asia has the highest child malnutrition rate of the world's regions. Nearly half of all Indian children are undernourished, one of the highest rates in the world and nearly double the rate of Sub-Saharan Africa. Every year, more than half a million women die in pregnancy or childbirth. Almost 90% of maternal deaths occur in Asia and sub-Saharan Africa, compared to less than 1% in the developed world.
Women who have born children into poverty may not be able to nourish the children efficiently and provide adequate care in infancy. The children may also suffer from disease that has been passed down to the child through birth. Asthma and rickets are common problems children acquire when born into poverty.
Needs assessment in poverty alleviation needs to be carried even in eduction circles for the target community. Research has found that there is a high risk of educational underachievement for children who are from low-income housing circumstances. This often is a process that begins in primary school for some less fortunate children. In Zambian educational system, these children are at a higher risk than other children for retention in their grade, special placements during the school's hours and even not completing their high school education. There are indeed many explanations for why students tend to drop out of school. For children with low resources, the risk factors are similar to excuses such as juvenile delinquency rates, higher levels of teenage pregnancy, and the economic dependency upon their low income parent or parents.Families and society who submit low levels of investment in the education and development of less fortunate children end up with less favorable results for the children who see a life of parental employment reduction and low wages. Higher rates of early childbearing with all the connected risks to family, health and well-being are majorly important issues to address since education from preschool to high school are both identifiably meaningful in a life. Poverty often drastically affects children's success in school. A child's "home activities, preferences, mannerisms" must align with the world and in the cases that they do not these students are at a disadvantage in the school and most importantly the classroom. Therefore, it is safe to state that children who live at or below the poverty level will have far less success educationally than children who live above the poverty line. Poor children have a great deal less healthcare and this ultimately results in many absences from the academic year. Additionally, poor children are much more likely to suffer from hunger, fatigue, irritability, headaches, ear infections, flu, and colds. These illnesses could potentially restrict a child or student's focus and concentration.
Needs assessment in poverty alleviation needs to be carried also in shelter or housing circles for the target community. Slum-dwellers, who make up a third of the world's urban population, live in a poverty no better, if not worse, than rural people, who are the traditional focus of the poverty in the developing world, according to a report by the United Nations. Most of the children living in institutions around the world have a surviving parent or close relative, and they most commonly entered orphanages because of poverty. Experts and child advocates maintain that orphanages are expensive and often harm children's development by separating them from their families. It is speculated that, flush with money, orphanages are increasing and push for children to join even though demographic data show that even the poorest extended families usually take. According to a UN report on modern slavery, the most common form of human trafficking is for prostitution, which is largely fueled by poverty. In Zimbabwe, a number of girls are turning to prostitution for food to survive because of the increasing poverty. In one survey, 67% of children from disadvantaged inner cities said they had witnessed a serious assault, and 33% reported witnessing a homicide. 51% of fifth graders from New Orleans (median income for a household: $27,133) have been found to be victims of violence, compared to 32% in Washington, DC (mean income for a household: $40,127).
Also there are also many effects of poverty closer to home. For example after dropping out of school children may turn to violence as a source of income i.e mugging people, betting during street fights etc...
Needs assessment in poverty alleviation needs to be carried out with care. Historically, poverty reduction has been largely a result of economic growth. The industrial revolution led to high economic growth and eliminated mass poverty in what is now considered the developed world. In 1820, 75% of humanity lived on less than a dollar a day, while in 2001, only about 20% do. As three quarters of the world's poor live in the country side, the World Bank cites helping small farmers as the heart of the fight against poverty. Economic growth in agriculture is, on average, at least twice as effective in benefiting the poorest half of a country's population as growth generated in non-agricultural sectors. However, aid is essential in providing better lives for those who are already poor and in sponsoring medical and scientific efforts such as the Green Revolution and the eradication of smallpox. In The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, Max Weber first suggested that cultural values could affect economic success, arguing that the Protestant Reformation led to values that drove people toward worldly achievements, a hard work ethic,[82] and saving to accumulate wealth for investment. The new religions (in particular, Calvinism and other more austere Protestant sects) effectively forbade wastefully using hard earned money and identified the purchase of luxuries a sin. Ian Vásquez, director of the Cato Institute's Project on Global Economic Liberty, wrote that extending property rights protection to the poor is one of the most important poverty reduction strategies a nation could take. Securing property rights to land, the largest asset for most societies, is vital to their economic freedom. The World Bank concludes increasing land rights is 'the key to reducing poverty' citing that land rights greatly increase poor people's wealth, in some cases doubling it. Peruvian economist Hernando de Soto has estimated that state recognition of the property of the poor would give them assets worth 40 times all the foreign aid since 1945. Although approaches varied, the World Bank said the key issues were security of tenure and ensuring land transactions were low cost. In China and India, noted reductions in poverty in recent decades have occurred mostly as a result of the abandonment of collective farming in China and the cutting of government red tape in India. However, ending government sponsorship of social programs is sometimes advocated as a free market principle with tragic consequences. For example, the World Bank presses poor nations to eliminate subsidies for fertilizer even while many farmers cannot afford them at market prices. The reconfiguration of public financing in former Soviet states during their transition to a market economy called for reduced spending on health and education, sharply increasing poverty. Trade liberalization increases the total surplus of trading nations. Remittances sent to poor countries, such as India, are sometimes larger than foreign direct investment and total remittances are more than double aid flows from OECD countries. Foreign investment and export industries helped fuel the economic expansion of fast growing Asian nations. However, trade rules are often unfair as they block access to richer nations' markets and ban poorer nations from supporting their industries. Processed products from poorer nations, in contrast to raw materials, get vastly higher tariffs at richer nations' ports. A University of Toronto study found the dropping of duty charges on thousands of products from African nations because of the African Growth and Opportunity Act was directly responsible for a "surprisingly large" increase in imports from Africa. However, Chinese textile and clothing exports have encountered criticism from Europe, the United States and some African countries.
Deals can also be negotiated to favor developing countries such as China, where laws compel foreign multinationals to train their future Chinese competitors in strategic industries and render themselves redundant in the long term. In Thailand, the 51 percent rule compels multinational corporations starting operations in Thailand to give 51 percent control to a Thai company in a joint venture.
Needs assessment in poverty alleviation needs to be carried also in infrastructure, and other circles for the target community. Investments in human capital, in the form of health, is needed for economic growth. Nations do not necessarily need wealth to gain health. For example, Sri Lanka had a maternal mortality rate of 2% in the 1930s, higher than any nation today. It reduced it to .5-.6% in the 1950s and to .06% today while spending less each year on maternal health because it learned what worked and what did not. Cheap water filters and promoting hand washing are some of the most cost effective health interventions and can cut deaths from diarrhea and pneumonia. Knowledge on the cost effectiveness of healthcare interventions can be elusive but educational measures to disseminate what works are available, such as the disease control priorities project. Human capital, in the form of education, is an even more important determinant of economic growth than physical capital. Deworming children costs about 50 cents per child per year and reduces non-attendance from anemia, illness and malnutrition and is only a twenty-fifth as expensive to increase school attendance as by constructing schools. UN economists argue that good infrastructure, such as roads and information networks, helps market reforms to work. China claims it is investing in railways, roads, ports and rural telephones in African countries as part of its formula for economic development. It was the technology of the steam engine that originally began the dramatic decreases in poverty levels. Cell phone technology brings the market to poor or rural sections. With necessary information, remote farmers can produce specific crops to sell to the buyers that brings the best price.
Such technology also makes financial services accessible to the poor. Those in poverty place overwhelming importance on having a safe place to save money, much more so than receiving loans. Also, a large part of microfinance loans are spent on products that would usually be paid by a checking or savings account. Mobile banking addresses the problem of the heavy regulation and costly maintenance of saving accounts.[8] Mobile financial services in the developing world, ahead of the developed world in this respect, could be worth $5 billion by 2012. Safaricom's M-Pesa launched one of the first systems where a network of agents of mostly shopkeepers, instead of bank branches, would take deposits in cash and translate these onto a virtual account on customers' phones. Cash transfers can be done between phones and issued back in cash with a small commission, making remittances safer.
Needs assessment in poverty alleviation should also look at how aid is being used in aparticular country in alleviating poverty. One of the proposed ways to help poor countries has been debt relief. Many less developed nations have gotten themselves into extensive debt to banks and governments from the rich nations and interest payments on these debts are often more than a country can generate per year in profits from exports. If poor countries do not have to spend so much on debt payments, they can use the money instead for priorities which help reduce poverty such as basic health-care and education. For example, Zambia began offering services, such as free health care even while overwhelming the health care infrastructure, because of savings that resulted from the rounds of debt relief in 2005.Efficient institutions that are not corrupt and obey the rule of law make and enforce good laws that provide security to property and businesses. Efficient and fair governments would work to invest in the long-term interests of the nation rather than plunder resources through corruption. Researchers at UC Berkeley developed what they called a "Weberianness scale" which measures aspects of bureaucracies and governments Max Weber described as most important for rational-legal and efficient government over 100 years ago. Comparative research has found that the scale is correlated with higher rates of economic development. With their related concept of good governance World Bank researchers have found much the same: Data from 150 nations have shown several measures of good governance (such as accountability, effectiveness, rule of law, low corruption) to be related to higher rates of economic development. The United Nations Development Program published a report in April 2000 which focused on good governance in poor countries as a key to economic development and overcoming the selfish interests of wealthy elites often behind state actions in developing nations. The report concludes that "Without good governance, reliance on trickle-down economic development and a host of other strategies will not work."
Needs assessment in poverty alleviation should also eplore the possibility of empowering or the limited powers women have in those communities. Empowering women has helped some countries increase and sustain economic development. When given more rights and opportunities women begin to receive more education, thus increasing the overall human capital of the country; when given more influence women seem to act more responsibly in helping people in the family or village; and when better educated and more in control of their lives, women are more successful in bringing down rapid population growth because they have more say in family planning.Poverty is usually measured as either absolute or relative poverty (the latter being actually an index of income inequality). Absolute poverty refers to a set standard which is consistent over time and between countries. The World Bank defines extreme poverty as living on less than US $1.25 (PPP) per day, and moderate poverty as less than $2 a day (but note that a person or family with access to subsistence resources, e.g. subsistence farmers, may have a low cash income without a correspondingly low standard of living - they are not living "on" their cash income but using it as a top up). It estimates that "in 2001, 1.1 billion people had consumption levels below $1 a day and 2.7 billion lived on less than $2 a day." Six million children die of hunger every year - 17,000 every day. Selective Primary Health Care has been shown to be one of the most efficient ways in which absolute poverty can be eradicated in comparison to Primary Health Care which has a target of treating diseases. Disease prevention is the focus of Selective Primary Health Care which puts this system on higher grounds in terms of preventing malnutrition and illness, thus putting an end to Absolute Poverty. The proportion of the developing world's population living in extreme economic poverty fell from 28 percent in 1990 to 21 percent in 2001. Most of this improvement has occurred in East and South Asia. In East Asia the World Bank reported that "The poverty headcount rate at the $2-a-day level is estimated to have fallen to about 27 percent [in 2007], down from 29.5 percent in 2006 and 69 percent in 1990." In Sub-Saharan Africa extreme poverty went up from 41 percent in 1981 to 46 percent in 2001which combined with growing population increased the number of people living in extreme poverty from 231 million to 318 million. In the early 1990s some of the transition economies of Eastern Europe and Central Asia experienced a sharp drop in income.[133] The collapse of the Soviet Union resulted in large declines in GDP per capita, of about 30 to 35% between 1990 and the trough year of 1998 (when it was at its minimum). As a result poverty rates also increased although in subsequent years as per capita incomes recovered the poverty rate dropped from 31.4% of the population to 19.6% The World Bank issued a report predicting that between 2007 and 2027 the populations of Georgia and Ukraine will decrease by 17% and 24% respectively. World Bank data shows that the percentage of the population living in households with consumption or income per person below the poverty line has decreased in each region of the world since 1990: Other human development indicators have also been improving. Life expectancy has greatly increased in the developing world since WWII and is starting to close the gap to the developed world. Child mortality has decreased in every developing region of the world. The proportion of the world's population living in countries where per-capita food supplies are less than 2,200 calories (9,200 kilojoules) per day decreased from 56% in the mid-1960s to below 10% by the 1990s. Similar trends can be observed for literacy, access to clean water and electricity and basic consumer items.
It can be concluded that needs assessment is done systematically and is the evaluation of current system and programmatic operations and projected needs. This evaluation is performed as part of the system development life cycle prior to design, and implementation. Evaluation of the requirements or demands for health services by a population or community. It help in determining goals, identifying discrepancies between optimal and actual performance, and establishing priorities for action. Related terms: Training needs assessment, needs analysis, front end analysis, task and subject matter analysis as discussed in the paper. A needs assessment is a great way to do all of the analysis and design work for a project before committing to the full development phase. During this rigorous process, we meet with the client to discuss the site's functionality and purposefully.
REFERENCES
Encarta Poverty definition". Encarta Poverty definition. Encarta.msn.com. http://encarta.msn.com/encnet/features/dictionary/DictionaryResults.aspx?lextype=3&search=poverty. Retrieved 2010-10-24.
Krugman, Paul, and Robin Wells. Macroeconomics. 2. New York City: Worth Publishers, 2009. Print.
Jonathan Watts in Beijing (2007-12-04). "Riots and hunger feared as demand for grain sends food costs soaring". London: Guardian. http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2007/dec/04/china.business. Retrieved 2010-10-24.
"overpopulation?". Henrygeorge.org. http://www.henrygeorge.org/popsup.htm. Retrieved 2010-10-24.
Moore, Wilbert. 1974. Social Change. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Parsons, Talcott. 1966. Societies: Evolutionary and Comparative Perspectives. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Kerbo, Harold. 2006. Social Stratification and Inequality: Class Conflict in Historical, Comparative, and Global Perspective, 6th edition. New York: McGraw-Hill.
http://www.wikipedia.com.
By definition, Fundamentally, poverty is a denial of choices and opportunities, a violation of human dignity. It means lack of basic capacity to participate effectively in society. It means not having enough to feed and cloth a family, not having a school or clinic to go to, not having the land on which to grow one’s food or a job to earn one’s living, not having access to credit. It means insecurity, powerlessness and exclusion of individuals, households and communities. It means susceptibility to violence, and it often implies living in marginal or fragile environments, without access to clean water or sanitation, (United Nations).
Needs assessment is a process for determining and addressing needs, or "gaps" between current conditions and desired conditions, often used for improvement in individuals, education/training, organizations, or communities. The need can be a desire to improve current performance or to correct a deficiency. The idea of needs assessment, as part of the planning process, has been used under different names for a long time. In the past 50 years, it has been an essential element of educational planning.Over the past four decades, there has been a proliferation of models for needs assessment with dozens of models to choose from.
Poverty alleviation refers to attempts in trying to reduce poverty levels in a nation. There has been a number of attempts in trying to alleviate poverty. However, these attempts were not based on proper needs assessment of that particular community. There is need to use a sound needs assessment whereby before the project is embarked on, there is need for a team of researchers to go into the field to find out the main problem or the needs and expectation of the people at the glass root. While its true that poverty is manifested at different as it is a condition characterized by severe deprivation of basic human needs, including food, safe drinking water, sanitation facilities, health, shelter, education and information. It depends not only on income but also on access to services. It includes a lack of income and productive resources to ensure sustainable livelihoods; hunger and malnutrition; ill health; limited or lack of access to education and other basic services; increased morbidity and mortality from illness; homelessness and inadequate housing; unsafe environments and social discrimination and exclusion. It is also characterized by lack of participation in decision making and in civil, social and cultural life. It occurs in all countries: as mass poverty in many developing countries, pockets of poverty amid wealth in developed countries, loss of livelihoods as a result of economic recession, sudden poverty as a result of disaster or conflict, the poverty of low-wage workers, and the utter destitution of people who fall outside family support systems, social institutions and safety nets, (World Summit on Social Development). There is need for researchers first to establish what the people at the place where poverty need to be reduced really needs and what can be done about them.
In the needs assessment process, researchers will be looking for things like helping the communities to meet nutritional requirements, to escape avoidable disease, to be sheltered, to be clothed, to be able to travel, and to be educated.
Needs assement process should be well defined with specific areas which needs to be addressed. People are living in poverty if their income and resources (material, cultural and social) are so inadequate as to preclude them from having a standard of living which is regarded as acceptable by Irish society generally. As a result of inadequate income and resources people may be excluded and marginalised from participating in activities which are considered the norm for other people in society. Considered the "father of needs assessment," Roger Kaufman first developed a model for determining needs defined as a gap in results. This particular emphasis in results focuses on the outcomes (or ends) that result from an organizaton's products, processes, or inputs (the means to the ends). Kaufman argues that an actual need can only be identified independent of premature selection of a solution (wherein processes are defined as means to an end, not an end unto themselves). To conduct a quality needs assessment according to Kaufman, you first determine the current results, articulate the desired results, and the distance between results is the actual need. Once a need is identified, then a solution can be selected that is targeted to closing the gap. Kaufman's model in particular identifies gaps in needs at the societal level, what Kaufman calls "Mega" planning, along with gaps at the Macro (or organizational) and Micro level.
Kaufman articulated 13 specific societal-level needs for which all organizations are partially responsible (based on data collected from countries around the world), all of which contribute ultimately to self-sufficiency and these needs need to be taken to consideration by researchers before the poverty alleviation project starts. Researchers needs assessment according to Kaufman may be in the following areas:
War and/or riot and/or terrorism; Shelter; Unintended human-cased changes to the environment, including permanent destruction of the environment and/or rendering it non-renewable; Murder, rape, or crimes of violence, robery, or destruction of property; Substance abuse; Disease; Pollution; Starvation and/or malnutrition; Child abuse; Partner/spouse/elder abuse; Injuries and accidents, including transportation, home, and business/workplace; Discrimination based on irrelevant variables including color, race, creed, sex, religion, national origin, age, and location and Poverty.
Some researchers recommends the use of models for establishing needs assessment processes in the targets communities. Apart from Kaufman’s thirteen model of establishing needs assessment, other models define needs assessment as a process for determining and addressing needs, or "gaps" between current conditions and desired conditions or gaps between current and desired products. Leigh, et al. conducted a comparison of the major needs assessment models in 2000 based on the level of organizational planning each addressed and the direction of linkages between the levels of planning. Models like the chain models help in alleviating poverty. Shafloot has his contribution to the needs assessment by adding a new unique model called Needs Chain Model which is composed of aligned horizontal and virtual processes in which there are four different kinds of needs that describe and identify the ultimate performance goal, solutions, and what might affect these solutions. It can be illustrated as performance, instruments, and conscious and unconscious needs. Also, it has four vertical factors that consider organizational and individual needs, causes, and level of objectivity for all needs.
It is clear here that in alleviating poverty, the Needs Chain Model provides tools that assist organizations in prioritizing resources and identifying areas that require improvement. Figure 1 identifies four main types of need that must be considered, for example, for determining the organization’s goals and the instrument needs with full understanding of the unconscious needs. Another factor determines the objectivity level.
In alleviating poverty, there is really need to asses the demands, needs and aspirations of the target community. There should be a deliberate inquiry or systematic inquiry of training needs within the researchers for the purposes of identifying priorities and making decisions, and allocating finite resources in a manner consistent with identified program goals and objectives.
Since poverty is in the community, there is need for community needs assessment. Gupta et al. developed a model focused at the community level they term community needs analysis. Their model involves identifying material problems/deficits/weaknesses and advantages/opportunities /strengths, and evaluating possible solutions that take those qualities into consideration. Note that this is different from Kaufman's Mega model that focuses on identifying societal-level needs.
Community needs assessment involves assessing the needs that people have in order to live in: “an ecologically sustainable environment, a community that maintains and develops viable social capital, a way that meets their own economic and financial requirements and a manner that permits political participation in decisions that affect themselves. Community needs assessment as a technique thus forms a part of an Ecologically Sustainable Community Economic Development (ESCED). It forms a first step in any project that aims to secure or alleviating poverty in a particular community:
Ecological enhancement: minimizing ecological impact or ameliorating any ecological damage; Social vitality: building a community that meets all the social and human needs of its members; Economic resilience: "shock-proofing" local "green" business enterprises as much as possible; Political participation in ways that ensure the participation of people in political decisions that affect them.
Community needs assessment can really help alleviate poverty within the members and among those target communities. Since needs assessment is a process that is used throughout education, government, and the private sector as a way of generating information that can be useful for solving some problem. The idea of needs assessment is hardly new; it has been used, under different names, for millennia as part of the planning process. Certainly, in the past 50 years or so, needs assessment has been, and continues to be, a cornerstone of educational planning at all levels.
A recent search for information on "needs assessment" using Google as a search engine, yielded some 413,000 references. Many of the sites offer very detailed descriptions of what needs assessment "is" and the steps required to undertake one. The purpose of this page on ADPRIMA is to distill much of this into a practical, straightforward description of the fundamental ideas of needs assessment. With that in mind, let’s begin.
Researchers who want to alleviate poverty need to distinguish needs and wants to the target community where this poverty alleviation is to take place. It seems reasonable to assert that wants trump needs. This is an opinion, but I think it is fundamental to the entire process. I suppose it comes down to a way of perceiving how meaning is derived from our choice and use of words and phrases.
We humans "need" things because of our wants. The things we need are comprised of physical objects such as food and shelter, as well as processes, such as root canals and haircuts. We also have come to "need" information such as the percent of students scoring at a particular level, or the total of charitable deductions for income tax purposes. As human beings, we also have emotional and psychological needs. Regardless of what we deem to be needs, they are all incontrovertibly linked directly to our wants. We need things either to happen or not happen because of what we want. We need certain conditions because of our wants. Abraham Maslow, (1908-1970) described the hierarchy of needs (being and deficit) that all humans strive to satisfy or to ameliorate. Regardless, the position here is that based on our wants, if something is "needed," it means we must have it, must get it, must obtain it. It is not a difficult concept. In some cases, such as the deficit needs described by Maslow, in order to obtain what we want, we may actually "need" less of something. Poverty is pronounced deprivation in well-being, and comprises many dimensions. It includes low incomes and the inability to acquire the basic goods and services necessary for survival with dignity. Poverty also encompasses low levels of health and education, poor access to clean water and sanitation, inadequate physical security, lack of voice, and insufficient capacity and opportunity to better one’s life.
Wants are sort of a priori transactions. We want one thing or one condition or another simply because we do. Our wants do not necessarily have to be justified. I want a red car, because I like red. I want to finish a report because it is important. Regardless of what our wants are, and they can be, to an outside observer, quite irrelevant or very important, our wants provide the criteria for determining what we need in order to satisfy them.
For needs assessment in poverty alleviation can be traced back in the history of poverty. Before the industrial revolution, poverty had been mostly accepted as inevitable as economies produced little, making wealth scarce. In Antwerp and Lyons, two of the largest cities in western Europe, by 1600 three-quarters of the total population were too poor to pay taxes. In 18th century England, half the population was at least occasionally dependent on charity for subsistence. In modern times, food shortages have been reduced dramatically in the developed world, thanks to agricultural technologies such as nitrogen fertilizers, pesticides and new irrigation methods. Also, mass production of goods in places such as China has made what were once considered luxuries, such as vehicles or computers, inexpensive and thus accessible to many who were otherwise too poor to afford them. Rises in the costs of living make poor people less able to afford items. Poor people spend a greater portion of their budgets on food than richer people. As a result, poor households and those near the poverty threshold can be particularly vulnerable to increases in food prices. For example, in late 2007 increases in the price of grains led to food riots in some countries. The World Bank warned that 100 million people were at risk of sinking deeper into poverty. Threats to the supply of food may also be caused by drought and the water crisis. Intensive farming often leads to a vicious cycle of exhaustion of soil fertility and decline of agricultural yields. Approximately 40% of the world's agricultural land is seriously degraded. In Africa, if current trends of soil degradation continue, the continent might be able to feed just 25% of its population by 2025, according to UNU's Ghana-based Institute for Natural Resources in Africa. Health care can be widely unavailable to the poor. The loss of health care workers emigrating from impoverished countries has a damaging effect. For example, an estimated 100,000 Philippine nurses emigrated between 1994 and 2006. There are more Ethiopian doctors in Chicago than in Ethiopia.
Needs assessment in poverty alleviation might also want to look at issues of demography like overpopulation and lack of access to birth control methods drive poverty. The world's population is expected to reach nearly 9 billion in 2040. However, the reverse is also true, that poverty causes overpopulation as it gives women little power to control giving birth, or to have educational attainment or a career. The unwillingness of governments and feudal elites to give full-fledged property rights in land to their tenants is cited as the chief obstacle to development. This lack of economic freedom inhibits entrepreneurship among the poor. New enterprises and foreign investment can be driven away by the results of inefficient institutions, notably corruption, weak rule of law and excessive bureaucratic burdens. Lack of financial services, as a result of restrictive regulations, such as the requirements for banking licenses, makes it hard for even smaller microsavings programs to reach the poor.
Illiteracy can be part of the needs assement techniques in the poverty alleviation process. It takes two days, two bureaucratic procedures, and k1,000,000 to open a business in Zambia while an entrepreneur in Zimbabwe might need K500,000 for business. All these facets need to be assessed. Similarly substance abuse, including for example alcoholism and drug abuse can consign people to vicious poverty cycles. Infectious diseases such as malaria and tuberculosis can perpetuate poverty by diverting health and economic resources from investment and productivity; malaria decreases GDP growth by up to 1.3% in some developing nations and AIDS decreases African growth by 0.3-1.5% annually. War, political instability and crime, including violent gangs and drug cartels, also discourage investment. Civil wars and conflicts in Africa cost the continent some $300 billion between 1990 and 2005. Eritrea and Ethiopia spent hundreds of millions of dollars on the war that resulted in minor border changes. Shocks in the business cycle affect poverty rates, increasing in recessions and declining in booms. Cultural factors, such as discrimination of various kinds, can negatively affect productivity such as age discrimination, stereotyping,[53] gender discrimination, racial discrimination, and caste discrimination.[54]
Max Weber and the modernization theory suggest that cultural values could affect economic success. However, researchers have gathered evidence that suggest that values are not as deeply ingrained and that changing economic opportunities explain most of the movement into and out of poverty, as opposed to shifts in values. Needs assessment should help researchers in determining and addressing needs, or "gaps" between current conditions and desired conditions, often used for improvement projects in education/training, organizations, or communities.
If an initial assessment conducted by the project team confirmed that there was a real need for a repository of media items about a certain state and things did not go well in sorting out the problem, the strategy need to be changed and this means that needs assessment were not not properly done.
Needs assessments are important in establishing poverty effects or levels of poverty in a target or particular community of concern. Hunger, disease, and less education describe a person in poverty. One third of deaths - some 18 million people a year or 50,000 per day - are due to poverty-related causes: in total 270 million people, most of them women and children, have died as a result of poverty since 1990. Those living in poverty suffer disproportionately from hunger or even starvation and disease. Those living in poverty suffer lower life expectancy. According to the World Health Organization, hunger and malnutrition are the single gravest threats to the world's public health and malnutrition is by far the biggest contributor to child mortality, present in half of all cases. Every year nearly 11 million children living in poverty die before their fifth birthday. 1.02 billion people go to bed hungry every night. Poverty increases the risk of homelessness. There are over 100 million street children worldwide. Increased risk of drug abuse may also be associated with poverty. According to the Global Hunger Index, South Asia has the highest child malnutrition rate of the world's regions. Nearly half of all Indian children are undernourished, one of the highest rates in the world and nearly double the rate of Sub-Saharan Africa. Every year, more than half a million women die in pregnancy or childbirth. Almost 90% of maternal deaths occur in Asia and sub-Saharan Africa, compared to less than 1% in the developed world.
Women who have born children into poverty may not be able to nourish the children efficiently and provide adequate care in infancy. The children may also suffer from disease that has been passed down to the child through birth. Asthma and rickets are common problems children acquire when born into poverty.
Needs assessment in poverty alleviation needs to be carried even in eduction circles for the target community. Research has found that there is a high risk of educational underachievement for children who are from low-income housing circumstances. This often is a process that begins in primary school for some less fortunate children. In Zambian educational system, these children are at a higher risk than other children for retention in their grade, special placements during the school's hours and even not completing their high school education. There are indeed many explanations for why students tend to drop out of school. For children with low resources, the risk factors are similar to excuses such as juvenile delinquency rates, higher levels of teenage pregnancy, and the economic dependency upon their low income parent or parents.Families and society who submit low levels of investment in the education and development of less fortunate children end up with less favorable results for the children who see a life of parental employment reduction and low wages. Higher rates of early childbearing with all the connected risks to family, health and well-being are majorly important issues to address since education from preschool to high school are both identifiably meaningful in a life. Poverty often drastically affects children's success in school. A child's "home activities, preferences, mannerisms" must align with the world and in the cases that they do not these students are at a disadvantage in the school and most importantly the classroom. Therefore, it is safe to state that children who live at or below the poverty level will have far less success educationally than children who live above the poverty line. Poor children have a great deal less healthcare and this ultimately results in many absences from the academic year. Additionally, poor children are much more likely to suffer from hunger, fatigue, irritability, headaches, ear infections, flu, and colds. These illnesses could potentially restrict a child or student's focus and concentration.
Needs assessment in poverty alleviation needs to be carried also in shelter or housing circles for the target community. Slum-dwellers, who make up a third of the world's urban population, live in a poverty no better, if not worse, than rural people, who are the traditional focus of the poverty in the developing world, according to a report by the United Nations. Most of the children living in institutions around the world have a surviving parent or close relative, and they most commonly entered orphanages because of poverty. Experts and child advocates maintain that orphanages are expensive and often harm children's development by separating them from their families. It is speculated that, flush with money, orphanages are increasing and push for children to join even though demographic data show that even the poorest extended families usually take. According to a UN report on modern slavery, the most common form of human trafficking is for prostitution, which is largely fueled by poverty. In Zimbabwe, a number of girls are turning to prostitution for food to survive because of the increasing poverty. In one survey, 67% of children from disadvantaged inner cities said they had witnessed a serious assault, and 33% reported witnessing a homicide. 51% of fifth graders from New Orleans (median income for a household: $27,133) have been found to be victims of violence, compared to 32% in Washington, DC (mean income for a household: $40,127).
Also there are also many effects of poverty closer to home. For example after dropping out of school children may turn to violence as a source of income i.e mugging people, betting during street fights etc...
Needs assessment in poverty alleviation needs to be carried out with care. Historically, poverty reduction has been largely a result of economic growth. The industrial revolution led to high economic growth and eliminated mass poverty in what is now considered the developed world. In 1820, 75% of humanity lived on less than a dollar a day, while in 2001, only about 20% do. As three quarters of the world's poor live in the country side, the World Bank cites helping small farmers as the heart of the fight against poverty. Economic growth in agriculture is, on average, at least twice as effective in benefiting the poorest half of a country's population as growth generated in non-agricultural sectors. However, aid is essential in providing better lives for those who are already poor and in sponsoring medical and scientific efforts such as the Green Revolution and the eradication of smallpox. In The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, Max Weber first suggested that cultural values could affect economic success, arguing that the Protestant Reformation led to values that drove people toward worldly achievements, a hard work ethic,[82] and saving to accumulate wealth for investment. The new religions (in particular, Calvinism and other more austere Protestant sects) effectively forbade wastefully using hard earned money and identified the purchase of luxuries a sin. Ian Vásquez, director of the Cato Institute's Project on Global Economic Liberty, wrote that extending property rights protection to the poor is one of the most important poverty reduction strategies a nation could take. Securing property rights to land, the largest asset for most societies, is vital to their economic freedom. The World Bank concludes increasing land rights is 'the key to reducing poverty' citing that land rights greatly increase poor people's wealth, in some cases doubling it. Peruvian economist Hernando de Soto has estimated that state recognition of the property of the poor would give them assets worth 40 times all the foreign aid since 1945. Although approaches varied, the World Bank said the key issues were security of tenure and ensuring land transactions were low cost. In China and India, noted reductions in poverty in recent decades have occurred mostly as a result of the abandonment of collective farming in China and the cutting of government red tape in India. However, ending government sponsorship of social programs is sometimes advocated as a free market principle with tragic consequences. For example, the World Bank presses poor nations to eliminate subsidies for fertilizer even while many farmers cannot afford them at market prices. The reconfiguration of public financing in former Soviet states during their transition to a market economy called for reduced spending on health and education, sharply increasing poverty. Trade liberalization increases the total surplus of trading nations. Remittances sent to poor countries, such as India, are sometimes larger than foreign direct investment and total remittances are more than double aid flows from OECD countries. Foreign investment and export industries helped fuel the economic expansion of fast growing Asian nations. However, trade rules are often unfair as they block access to richer nations' markets and ban poorer nations from supporting their industries. Processed products from poorer nations, in contrast to raw materials, get vastly higher tariffs at richer nations' ports. A University of Toronto study found the dropping of duty charges on thousands of products from African nations because of the African Growth and Opportunity Act was directly responsible for a "surprisingly large" increase in imports from Africa. However, Chinese textile and clothing exports have encountered criticism from Europe, the United States and some African countries.
Deals can also be negotiated to favor developing countries such as China, where laws compel foreign multinationals to train their future Chinese competitors in strategic industries and render themselves redundant in the long term. In Thailand, the 51 percent rule compels multinational corporations starting operations in Thailand to give 51 percent control to a Thai company in a joint venture.
Needs assessment in poverty alleviation needs to be carried also in infrastructure, and other circles for the target community. Investments in human capital, in the form of health, is needed for economic growth. Nations do not necessarily need wealth to gain health. For example, Sri Lanka had a maternal mortality rate of 2% in the 1930s, higher than any nation today. It reduced it to .5-.6% in the 1950s and to .06% today while spending less each year on maternal health because it learned what worked and what did not. Cheap water filters and promoting hand washing are some of the most cost effective health interventions and can cut deaths from diarrhea and pneumonia. Knowledge on the cost effectiveness of healthcare interventions can be elusive but educational measures to disseminate what works are available, such as the disease control priorities project. Human capital, in the form of education, is an even more important determinant of economic growth than physical capital. Deworming children costs about 50 cents per child per year and reduces non-attendance from anemia, illness and malnutrition and is only a twenty-fifth as expensive to increase school attendance as by constructing schools. UN economists argue that good infrastructure, such as roads and information networks, helps market reforms to work. China claims it is investing in railways, roads, ports and rural telephones in African countries as part of its formula for economic development. It was the technology of the steam engine that originally began the dramatic decreases in poverty levels. Cell phone technology brings the market to poor or rural sections. With necessary information, remote farmers can produce specific crops to sell to the buyers that brings the best price.
Such technology also makes financial services accessible to the poor. Those in poverty place overwhelming importance on having a safe place to save money, much more so than receiving loans. Also, a large part of microfinance loans are spent on products that would usually be paid by a checking or savings account. Mobile banking addresses the problem of the heavy regulation and costly maintenance of saving accounts.[8] Mobile financial services in the developing world, ahead of the developed world in this respect, could be worth $5 billion by 2012. Safaricom's M-Pesa launched one of the first systems where a network of agents of mostly shopkeepers, instead of bank branches, would take deposits in cash and translate these onto a virtual account on customers' phones. Cash transfers can be done between phones and issued back in cash with a small commission, making remittances safer.
Needs assessment in poverty alleviation should also look at how aid is being used in aparticular country in alleviating poverty. One of the proposed ways to help poor countries has been debt relief. Many less developed nations have gotten themselves into extensive debt to banks and governments from the rich nations and interest payments on these debts are often more than a country can generate per year in profits from exports. If poor countries do not have to spend so much on debt payments, they can use the money instead for priorities which help reduce poverty such as basic health-care and education. For example, Zambia began offering services, such as free health care even while overwhelming the health care infrastructure, because of savings that resulted from the rounds of debt relief in 2005.Efficient institutions that are not corrupt and obey the rule of law make and enforce good laws that provide security to property and businesses. Efficient and fair governments would work to invest in the long-term interests of the nation rather than plunder resources through corruption. Researchers at UC Berkeley developed what they called a "Weberianness scale" which measures aspects of bureaucracies and governments Max Weber described as most important for rational-legal and efficient government over 100 years ago. Comparative research has found that the scale is correlated with higher rates of economic development. With their related concept of good governance World Bank researchers have found much the same: Data from 150 nations have shown several measures of good governance (such as accountability, effectiveness, rule of law, low corruption) to be related to higher rates of economic development. The United Nations Development Program published a report in April 2000 which focused on good governance in poor countries as a key to economic development and overcoming the selfish interests of wealthy elites often behind state actions in developing nations. The report concludes that "Without good governance, reliance on trickle-down economic development and a host of other strategies will not work."
Needs assessment in poverty alleviation should also eplore the possibility of empowering or the limited powers women have in those communities. Empowering women has helped some countries increase and sustain economic development. When given more rights and opportunities women begin to receive more education, thus increasing the overall human capital of the country; when given more influence women seem to act more responsibly in helping people in the family or village; and when better educated and more in control of their lives, women are more successful in bringing down rapid population growth because they have more say in family planning.Poverty is usually measured as either absolute or relative poverty (the latter being actually an index of income inequality). Absolute poverty refers to a set standard which is consistent over time and between countries. The World Bank defines extreme poverty as living on less than US $1.25 (PPP) per day, and moderate poverty as less than $2 a day (but note that a person or family with access to subsistence resources, e.g. subsistence farmers, may have a low cash income without a correspondingly low standard of living - they are not living "on" their cash income but using it as a top up). It estimates that "in 2001, 1.1 billion people had consumption levels below $1 a day and 2.7 billion lived on less than $2 a day." Six million children die of hunger every year - 17,000 every day. Selective Primary Health Care has been shown to be one of the most efficient ways in which absolute poverty can be eradicated in comparison to Primary Health Care which has a target of treating diseases. Disease prevention is the focus of Selective Primary Health Care which puts this system on higher grounds in terms of preventing malnutrition and illness, thus putting an end to Absolute Poverty. The proportion of the developing world's population living in extreme economic poverty fell from 28 percent in 1990 to 21 percent in 2001. Most of this improvement has occurred in East and South Asia. In East Asia the World Bank reported that "The poverty headcount rate at the $2-a-day level is estimated to have fallen to about 27 percent [in 2007], down from 29.5 percent in 2006 and 69 percent in 1990." In Sub-Saharan Africa extreme poverty went up from 41 percent in 1981 to 46 percent in 2001which combined with growing population increased the number of people living in extreme poverty from 231 million to 318 million. In the early 1990s some of the transition economies of Eastern Europe and Central Asia experienced a sharp drop in income.[133] The collapse of the Soviet Union resulted in large declines in GDP per capita, of about 30 to 35% between 1990 and the trough year of 1998 (when it was at its minimum). As a result poverty rates also increased although in subsequent years as per capita incomes recovered the poverty rate dropped from 31.4% of the population to 19.6% The World Bank issued a report predicting that between 2007 and 2027 the populations of Georgia and Ukraine will decrease by 17% and 24% respectively. World Bank data shows that the percentage of the population living in households with consumption or income per person below the poverty line has decreased in each region of the world since 1990: Other human development indicators have also been improving. Life expectancy has greatly increased in the developing world since WWII and is starting to close the gap to the developed world. Child mortality has decreased in every developing region of the world. The proportion of the world's population living in countries where per-capita food supplies are less than 2,200 calories (9,200 kilojoules) per day decreased from 56% in the mid-1960s to below 10% by the 1990s. Similar trends can be observed for literacy, access to clean water and electricity and basic consumer items.
It can be concluded that needs assessment is done systematically and is the evaluation of current system and programmatic operations and projected needs. This evaluation is performed as part of the system development life cycle prior to design, and implementation. Evaluation of the requirements or demands for health services by a population or community. It help in determining goals, identifying discrepancies between optimal and actual performance, and establishing priorities for action. Related terms: Training needs assessment, needs analysis, front end analysis, task and subject matter analysis as discussed in the paper. A needs assessment is a great way to do all of the analysis and design work for a project before committing to the full development phase. During this rigorous process, we meet with the client to discuss the site's functionality and purposefully.
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